tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-86357654139156943712024-02-07T22:18:49.343-08:00An introduction to India "Bharat-varsha" . versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.comBlogger22125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-32816223307755069122015-05-14T23:12:00.000-07:002015-05-14T23:12:44.849-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Wars and Arms and Artillaries -</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Since ancient times there has been a legacy of wars in India .The war was called "Dharmayuddh" when it was for a right purpose.When it was for subvertion of monarch and for annihilation of enemy it was Asur Yuddh .And when the war was waged for greed for wealth ,it was called Lobh yuddha.The later two were inculded in the "Kutayuddha" or unrighteous war .The wars were waged upon some ethical values called "yuddha niti" that very much determined the direction of war . Since ancient time kings of India never tried to usurp the land of other kindoms beyond the physical baundaries of India .Though there was a trend of conquering the entire Indian subcontinent by a King ,who wanted to become a great ruler with the title "Chakravarti Samraat" .Even in Mahabharat and Ramayan there are instances of the emperors performing "Ashwamedh yagya" who wanted their sovereignity to be accepted by neighbouring chieftains and other rulers . We can find the elaborated description of wars from many sources of past.I am here going to discuss the importance of the war and its three components - social ,physical and technical accomplishments.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Social resources - </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In ancient India society became organised.Those castes who were amenable for wars were Kshtriyas.Kshtriyas were assigned a social rank next to the intellectual and spiritual members of the society .They were responsible for maintaining unity and integrity of a kingdom ,which they governed .They were the rulers and hence had responsibility of governance and defense of their subjects .They were given necessary education ,drill and discipline to cultivate the militarism and thus the art of waging wars was not so common in other castes .They were supposed to inherit the inborn characters of chivalry ,mercy ,nobility etc.But the most admiring thing that could be seen in the Kshatriyas of ancient India is that in the grimmest times of struggle in the wars they never forgot morals and their principles of war .As it has been stated in Agni Purana the principles of war or Dhramayuddh inculded -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">An armed soldier should never fight with a man who is not so clad .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">One should fight with only one enemy and should cease the war if the opponent is disabled.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Aged men ,women ,children where thought to be weak .So they were not supposed to be attacked .One who surrenders ,also came in this class .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The war should not be waged on the public areas and the army was not allowed to destroy fruits ,flowers,gardens ,and other places of public interests .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The physical structure of an army -Sources say that since ancient Vedic times the army was divided in fourfold of forces that were Chariots, Elephants ,Horsemen and the Cavalry.The army possessing those four parts were called Chaturangini sena .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Since childhood the kshatriya children were given technical education in science of arms .Weapons consisted of Astras and Shastras.The former was thrown or cast down by means of machines,charms or fire .They were charmed and tubular.The shastras were such weapon that could inflict a cut in someone's body. Archery was the most important weapon science in the vedic and post vedic periods .The bow (Dhanush) and arrows(Baana) though named differently as Sarang ,Kodand ,Karmuka.Archery was not limited upto the usage of normal arrows .The arrows were first empowered by the formula to be recited like holy hymns: Mantras .Reciting these , the arrow fills with magical and spiritual efficiency and carried specific power with it ,that was strong enough to devastate the enemy in a desired way .There are description of many such arms in the Vedas , Mahabaharat ,Ramayan .The archery called "Dhanurvidya" and the book that gives its knowledge was "Dhanur veda".Dhanurveda classifies the weapons as Amukta (not thrown), Mukta(thrown), Mukta-mukta and Mantramukta (discharged by mantras ) .In Nitiprakasika ,it seems that it has talked about the arrows of three types Mukta ,Amukta and Mantramukta .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">We have references from Bhargava that talks about many interesting weapons.Millions of types of arrows such as blazing ,venom tipped ,snake like ."Asani "and "Vajra" meaning "lightening" (generating electrical energy).Vajra was a Amukta weapon assigned to Indra which was made of the bone of Maharshi Dadhichi. "Sammohan baan" rendered those they struck unconciouss.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">We get a refrence of the hyper destructive weapons :the Brahmastra and Pashupatastra ,that are described as to be powerful enough that they could cause indiscriminate loss of life.Even biological weapons were known .The Puranas says that there were such arrows ,when shot ,could cause fever and other serious diseases .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A weapon termed Shataghni indicates the presence of a projectile that could kill thousands together.It may be taken as a weapon like cannon .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Asi or the swords were thought to be one of the best types of weapons to fight all types of wars.<span style="background-color: white;">In the </span><b style="background-color: white;">Santi-parva</b><span style="background-color: white;"> (166,3 ff; 82 ff). </span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Bhisma</b></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><b style="background-color: white;">being asked as to which weapon in his opinion was the best for all kinds of fighting, replies that the sword is the foremost among arms (agryah praharananam), but the bow is first (adyam). </b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In ancient India the process of making Ukku steel was known that is nowadays is called Damascus steel .It was used to make best swords of the world .<b style="background-color: white;">The original Damascus steel-the world's first high-carbon steel-was a product of India known as wootz. Wootz is the English for ukku in Kannada and Telugu, meaning steel.</b></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 21px;">The Puranas refer to certain hyper-destructive weapons: the Brahmastra and Pashupatastra,as the highly resonant incendiary wepons that set fire to everything. Lakshmana in Ramayana so and Arjuna in Mahabharatas' were prevented from using them because they could cause indiscriminate loss of life. </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">Once I had a discussion with my father on the Brahmastra and pashupatastra and how lord Krishna saved Parikshit in the womb of Uttara when Aswasthama discharged Brahmastra at him. He told me that these weapons were like nuclear weapons that were once when discharged were tough to control and were powerful enough to do a considerable destruction to the earth .Now I am really surprized to see such a statement given by someone else ..</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Julius Robert Oppenheimer, the principle developer of the atomic bomb, stated that "The Vedas are the greatest privilege of this century." During the explosion of the first atomic bomb, Oppenheimer quoted several Bhagavad-gita verses from the 11th chapter, such as:</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">"Death I am, cause of destruction of the worlds..."</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">When Oppenheimer was asked if this is the first nuclear explosion, he significantly replied: "Yes, in modern times," implying that ancient nuclear explosions may have previously occurred.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">You know, thinking of it thrills me from inside .It is really amazing !</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">There is also reference to bacteriological warfare in the Puranas. Arrows were shot to cause fever and other serious diseases of the eyes and ears of the enemy. People believed in mantras, words or formula to be recited or sung, that have magical and spiritual efficiency.</span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Atharva Veda refers to resorts to enchantments as a means to win battles.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">There are many instances of naval and aerial war fares in ancient India .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In Shantiparva of Mahabharat ,(by Pitamah Bhishma) it is said that the navy is one of the parts of a complete army.<span style="background-color: white;">In the Manusamhita (Vii. 192), it is said that boats should be employed for military purposes when the theatre of hostilities abounded in water. </span><b style="background-color: white;">Kamandaka</b><span style="background-color: white;"> (XVI, 50) alludes to naval warfare when he says: "By regular practice one becomes an adept in fighting from chariot, horses, elephants and boats, and a past-master in ery." </span><b style="background-color: white;">Manavadharmasastra </b><span style="background-color: white;">refers to sea fights and attests to the use of boats for naval warfare. </span><b style="background-color: white;">The sailor is called naukakarmajiva. Yukti-kalpataru</b><span style="background-color: white;"> of Bhoja specifies three types of ships Sarvamadira - cabins everywhere,Madhyamadira - Cabins in the middle (used in rainy season) and Agramandira - cabins towards the prows or in front ( eminently adapted for naval warfare).</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Further on in the Veda, this same vessel is described as a <b>plava</b> which was storm-proof and which presented a pleasing appearance and had wings on its sides. Another reference informs us that Tugra dispatched a fleet of four vessels (<b>Catasro navah</b>) among which was the one referred to above. We may infer from these passages that the Asvins were a great commercial people having their home in a far-off island, and that their ruler Tugra maintained a fleet in the interests of his State. There are also other references in the Rig Veda to show that the ancient Indians were acquainted with the art of navigation. For instance, Varuna is credited with a knowledge of the ocean routes along which vessels sailed. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">The</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Baudhayana Dharmasastra</b></span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">speaks of Samudrasamyanam and interprets it as</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><b style="background-color: white;">nava dvipantaragamanam, i. e. Sailing to other lands by ships. This very term occurs in the navadhyaksa section of the</b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>Kautaliya Arthasastra.</b></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Though it is thought generally that science of flying is a gift to us from right brothers,but when you will know the reality ,you will be surprised .Knowledge of aerial warfare was well known to ancient Indians since Vedic period.In one of the Brahmanas of Vedas ,there is description of an aircraft with two wings .It says <span style="background-color: white;">he ship is the Agnihotra of which the Ahavaniya and Garhapatya fires represent the two sides bound heavenward, and the steersman is the Agnihotrin who offers milk to the three Agnis. Again in the still earlier Rg Veda Samhita we read that the Asvins conveyed the rescued Bhujya safely by means of winged ships.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b style="background-color: white;">Samarangana Sutradhara of Bhoja</b><span style="background-color: white;">, a whole chapter of about 230 stanzas is devoted to the principles of construction underlying the various flying machines and other engines used for military and other purposes.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span>The Puranas and epics show that ancient Indians knew well the art of navigating in the air.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b style="background-color: white;">Col. Henry S Olcott </b><span style="background-color: white;">(1832 – 1907) </span><span class="artcopy" style="background-color: white;">American author, attorney, philosopher, and co founder of the <b><a href="http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/theos/wqj-selc.htm" target="_blank">Theosophical Society</a></b></span><span style="background-color: white;"> in a lecture in Allahabad, in 1881.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He said : <b style="background-color: white;">“The ancient Hindus could navigate the air, and not only navigate it, but fight battles in it like so many war-eagles combating for the domination of the clouds. To be so perfect in aeronautics, they must have known all the arts and sciences related to the science, including the strata and currents of the atmosphere, the relative temperature, humidity, density and specific gravity of the various gases...”</b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In Vaimanika Sastra of Maharshi Bhardwaj there has been given a detailed description of the mercury vortex engine .Indologist William Clarindon in his translation of Samaranga Sutradhara quotes "<span style="background-color: white;">‘Inside the circular air frame, place the mercury-engine with its solar mercury boiler at the aircraft center. By means of the power latent in the heated mercury which sets the driving whirlwind in motion a man sitting inside may travel a great distance in a most marvellous manner. Four strong mercury containers must be built into the interior structure. When these have been heated by fire through solar or other sources the </span><b style="background-color: white;">Vimana</b><span style="background-color: white;"> (aircraft) develops thunder-power through the mercury."</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b style="background-color: white;">Shivkar Bapuji Talpade</b><span style="background-color: white;"> was born in 1864 in the locality of Chirabazar at Dukkarwadi in Bombay.</span></span></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEj0W5dKDq4s3dQWKRp6puzy5YAlXSYbwHfQOKILOc9kjULsrTcHO3srpZQPuFkjNwYW3NxdSFuqXDXnakHNJHgeP4v7KjUhzYDRBvy13oe_8LM_thX6xSmOvXycE8N1MpuKAlSl6A1ckL9Kl7WXAA=" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.hinduwisdom.info/images/vimanaT.jpg" height="230" style="border: 4px solid rgb(0, 128, 128);" width="210" /></a><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">He was a scholar of Sanskrit and from his young age was attracted by the Vaimanika Sastra .</span><span style="background-color: white;"> One western scholar of Indology</span><b style="background-color: white;">Stephen-Knapp</b><span style="background-color: white;"> has put in simple words or rather has tried to explain what Talpade did and succeeded!</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Surprisingly according to the bi-monthly <i>Ancient Skies</i> published in USA, the aircraft engines being developed for future use by <b>NASA</b> by some strange coincidence also uses <u>mercury bombardment units powered by Solar cells</u>! Interestingly, the impulse is generated in seven stages.</span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">You can find the english translation of vaimanika shastra on http://upload.vedpuran.net/Uploads/121113the_vimanika_shastra.pdf</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In Yantra Sarvaswa it is said "There are 32 kinds of yantras for generating electricity, such as by friction, by heating, by waterfall, by combination, by solar rays, etc. Out of these, saamyojaka or production by combination is the one most suitable for vimaanas. Its manufacture is explained by Sage Agastya in Shaktitantra". There has been described a method to store electricity via the rays of Sun which in turn starts the mercury engine .</span></span><br />
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<a href="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRZIETRVdBJZKURV1PDSD2MrIb6mwCvO8NoUcsqDECihWZchSUf" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: #0b5394;"><img border="0" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRZIETRVdBJZKURV1PDSD2MrIb6mwCvO8NoUcsqDECihWZchSUf" /></span></a><span style="color: #0b5394;">The beautiful National Park situated in 40 km square area in Bishnupur, Manipur .This is a reserve for protecting Brown Antlered Deer (<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i style="line-height: 19px; text-align: justify;">Ru</i><span style="line-height: 19px; text-align: justify;">c</span><i style="line-height: 19px; text-align: justify;">ervus eldi eldi</i></span>) and has been declared a world heritage site by UNESCO .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is world's only floating park .It is called so because the park is a swamp with floating mass of vegetation called "Phumdis".It is one of the most spectacular site in India .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gir Forest is the biggest wildlife sanctury in India .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is a Lion reserve .Corbett National Park is Tiger reserve .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Keibul Lamjao Park </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Name Location Reserve For </span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Kaziranga National Park Jorhat (Assam) Rhinoceros ,Buffalos,Hog</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Manas National Park Manas(Assam) Rhinoceros</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sonairupa Sanctury Tezpur(Assam) Elephant,Sambhar,Wild Boar ,Rhinoceros</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh Tiger</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Pakhal Sanctury Warangal(Andhra Pradesh) Tiger,Panther,Nilgai</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Dachingam Kashmir Kashmir Stag</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Corbet National Park Nainital (Uttarakhand) Tiger,Elephant</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Achanakmar Sanctury Bilaspur(MP) Tiger,bear,cheetal,sambhar, bison</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Tiger</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Shivpuri National Park Madhya Pradesh Leopards ,Jackals, wild boar ,sloth bear.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gandhi Sagar Sanctury Mandsaur(MP) Chital ,sambar ,chinkara</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chandraprabha Sanctury Uttar Pradesh Lion</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Dudhawa national park Uttar Pradesh Barasingha (12 pointed deer)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sariska Sanctury Alwar (Rajasthan) Tiger Panther ,Chinkara,samber</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ranthambhor National Park Sawai Madhopur(Rajasthan) Tiger ,leapord,sloth bear, crocodile</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ghana Bird Sanctury or Keoladeo Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Water birds,Black bug ,Chital, sambhar .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gir Forest (Biggest Wild Life Junagarh(Gujrat) Lion</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Sanctury in India )</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Wild Ass Sanctury Little Rann Of Kachch(Gujrat) Wild ass.Wolf,Nilgai,Chinkara</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Hazaribagh National Park Bihar Tiger</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sundarban Tiger Reserve South 24 Parganas Tiger ,dear,wild boar,leapord</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> (West Bengal)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Simplipal National Park Mayurbhanj,Orrisa Tigers,Leapords,elephant,hill maynah</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Nokrek National Park Garo hills (Meghalaya) Fishing cat ,tiger</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Keibul Lamjao (only floating</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">park in the world) Bishnupur(Manipur) Dancing deer</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Vedanthangal Bird Tamil Nadu Birds</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mudumalai Sanctury Tamil Nadu Tigers,golden jackal,stripped hyena</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bandipur Sanctury Border of Karnataka and Elephants ,tiger , sambhar Tamilnadu panther</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Rangnathittoo Bird Sanctury Mysore (Karnataka) Birds</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Nagarhole National park Karnataka Elephant ,tiger,leopards, wild dogs</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Saraswathy Sanctury Shimoga (Karnataka ) Elephant,tiger,panther</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Tungbhadra sanctury Ballary (Karnataka) Four horn antelope,sloth bear.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Periyar sanctury Idukki(Kerela) Elephant,tiger,panther,nilgai, sambar </span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-8375733098753388832015-03-14T03:46:00.000-07:002015-03-14T05:09:18.393-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;"><b>Spirituality </b></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">There are so many things in life that different people think in different ways .Each handle situations of life in his and her own way.Those who think that they are making their future in physical sense and other who think that they are making their future in spiritual sense .In this whole world you would find majority of second type of people in India .This philosophy is in the root of Indian culture .Have you ever heard of 33 crores deities in any religion or in any philosophy .It is not fake .In Hindu religion it is so ,there are 33 crores of deities controlling the various phenonmenons of this universe .You should trust .Once I was studying the immune system of human body .I was surprized to see the controlled functions of molecules .They are just molecules without any brain ...if it is the gene that regulate their actions ,are genes big enough to possess a brain or brain is the massive form of that specific machine that can work even at molecular level ? Brain is a biological product formed by the interactions of the matter waves with the force produced by spiritual thoughts or consciousness of an identity . It is the conciousness that guides the molecules to arrange in a proper way according to one's nature.Each and every molecule in your body is adjusted according to your nature .Thats way you are different from others .But domains of specific bodily functions seems to be under control of some external power ,where you dont have your own access ,even not know that it is happening somewhere in the body .But there is a war in our body everytime for its existence .Who fights in our favour .It seems that these are agents of that God whom we offer our prayer .His force ,alloted in sections to those demigods ,who are looking after specific tasks of this universe .So .in India ,we say if you are suffering from this problem ,pray to this demigod .But finally ,if you are dedicated to the head "the truth" i.e called "Hari Om Tatsat"</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">you need not to care about the all smaller one .This is the principle followed by the Indians since ancient times .Here " Dharma or the righteous path" is thought to be followed by right people ,wheather the conclusion seems to be tougher .Even people do not fear of death in front of their spiritual rising.It is the spirituality in India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">We can see what is superior to matter is the power that configures it i.e. consciousness .</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">Albert Einstein has said that </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">“No problem can be solved from the same level of consciousness that created it.”.So consciousness itself is superior to matter and the abstract is ruling this universe !The spiritualy is in vein of India .Everywhere people are influenced by its magic .Even the power of stability in a typical country like India comes from it only .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">Our observation changes our world .What we think we see like that and that observation changes our world .Recent studies shows that </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;"> factors associated with consciousness are significantly correlated in predicted ways with perturbations in the double slit interference pattern.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 21px; text-align: justify;">Pioneering physicist Sir James Jeans wrote: “The stream of knowledge is heading toward a non-mechanical reality; the universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine. Mind no longer appears to be an accidental intruder into the realm of matter, we ought rather hail it as the creator and governor of the realm of matter. Get over it, and accept the inarguable conclusion. The universe is immaterial-mental and spiritual.” (R.C. Henry, “The Mental Universe” ; Nature 436:29,2005) </span><a href="http://henry.pha.jhu.edu/The.mental.Universe.pdf" style="-webkit-transition: all 0.2s linear; color: #27aae1; outline: none !important; text-decoration: none; transition: all 0.2s linear;" target="_blank">(source)</a> .</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-79796699100019255692015-03-09T09:19:00.003-07:002015-03-14T05:09:18.376-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Constitution of India<br />
<br />
Drafting of Constitution -<br />
Members of the drafting committee<br />
<br />
Parts of Indian constitution<br />
The preamble<br />
Parts and the article<br />
The schedules<br />
Amendments of the constitution -<br />
Methods of Amendment<br />
Major amendments of the constitution<br />
Citizenship in the constitution -<br />
Dual citizenship<br />
<br />
Functionaries of Central government<br />
<br />
The President<br />
<br />
Qualifications of the President.<br />
Election of the President<br />
Trms and emoluments<br />
Powers of the President<br />
Impeachment (article 61)<br />
In case of vacancy<br />
<br />
The Vice President<br />
<br />
Qualifications of VicePresident<br />
Election of vice president<br />
Terms and emoluments<br />
Functions<br />
<br />
The Prime minister -<br />
<br />
Emoluments<br />
<br />
Council of ministers<br />
The parliament -<br />
Rajya Sabha<br />
Eligibility of the members<br />
Lok Sabha<br />
Elegibility of the members<br />
Session of the parliament<br />
joint session of Parliament<br />
Conduct of business in parliament<br />
<br />
The supreme court -<br />
Features of the supreme court<br />
<br />
Functionaries of state -<br />
The governer-<br />
Qualification or elegibility<br />
Remuneration<br />
Powers<br />
<br />
The Chief Minister<br />
The council of ministers<br />
The state legislature -<br />
Bicameral states<br />
The Legislative Council(Vidhan Parishad)<br />
The Legislative assembly (Vidhan sabha)<br />
<br />
Thew High court -<br />
Appointment of judges<br />
qualification of judges<br />
Tenure<br />
Procedure for removal<br />
<br />
Union state relations -<br />
<br />
Union list<br />State list<br />
Concurrent list<br />
<br />
UPSC<br />
Comptroller and Auditor general<br />
Attorney general of India<br />
Anti defection law<br />
<br />
Political process in India -<br />
General elections in India<br />
Political parties in India<br />
<br />
The election commission -<br />
Function of the EC<br />
<br />
Panchayati Raj System -<br />
some facts about elections in india<br />
General election 2009 </div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-7041405141126971982015-03-09T09:19:00.001-07:002015-03-14T05:09:18.349-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Constitution of India<br />
<br />
Drafting of Constitution -<br />
Members of the drafting committee<br />
<br />
Parts of Indian constitution<br />
The preamble<br />
Parts and the article<br />
The schedules<br />
Amendments of the constitution -<br />
Methods of Amendment<br />
Major amendments of the constitution<br />
Citizenship in the constitution -<br />
Dual citizenship<br />
<br />
Functionaries of Central government<br />
<br />
The President<br />
<br />
Qualifications of the President.<br />
Election of the President<br />
Trms and emoluments<br />
Powers of the President<br />
Impeachment (article 61)<br />
In case of vacancy<br />
<br />
The Vice President<br />
<br />
Qualifications of VicePresident<br />
Election of vice president<br />
Terms and emoluments<br />
Functions<br />
<br />
The Prime minister -<br />
<br />
Emoluments<br />
<br />
Council of ministers<br />
The parliament -<br />
Rajya Sabha<br />
Eligibility of the members<br />
Lok Sabha<br />
Elegibility of the members<br />
Session of the parliament<br />
joint session of Parliament<br />
Conduct of business in parliament<br />
<br />
The supreme court -<br />
Features of the supreme court<br />
<br />
Functionaries of state -<br />
The governer-<br />
Qualification or elegibility<br />
Remuneration<br />
Powers<br />
<br />
The Chief Minister<br />
The council of ministers<br />
The state legislature -<br />
Bicameral states<br />
The Legislative Council(Vidhan Parishad)<br />
The Legislative assembly (Vidhan sabha)<br />
<br />
Thew High court -<br />
Appointment of judges<br />
qualification of judges<br />
Tenure<br />
Procedure for removal<br />
<br />
Union state relations -<br />
<br />
Union list<br />State list<br />
Concurrent list<br />
<br />
UPSC<br />
Comptroller and Auditor general<br />
Attorney general of India<br />
Anti defection law<br />
<br />
Political process in India -<br />
General elections in India<br />
Political parties in India<br />
<br />
The election commission -<br />
Function of the EC<br />
<br />
Panchayati Raj System -<br />
some facts about elections in india<br />
General election 2009 </div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-5839674657116321682015-03-09T04:02:00.001-07:002015-03-14T05:09:18.330-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b style="background-color: white;">Status of women </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Since ancient times women were thought to be a symbol of love , compassion,forgiveness,coyly and power .They were given due respect .They were expected to be of strong character and were always supposed to be married in superior races ,so that they can learn good things from superior people and their virtues could not be misentertained by the mean people.They were always protected first because they were well known for their importance in establishing the pillars of the society.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The women at that time assumed their husbands like the God and the men gave their wives due respect assuming them a form of Godess .Each one has respect for each other .</span><br />
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" 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cb/Cs7ittTpuHnTJiy3ygbqQOQ+5jLY2ekBhb10cP6kQ/wDiKaSgJYedaQlPlZMxSQafMyezvDf4K2EFFUxbFIOVKNHoSW1YUHN4WZKbIPX+Fd/thg6JHK2fOODzZSEJrwzJJu12BAPeKcFijLKFpuliAeIZx+cY+tnDpy5MoINCGuLRgdr/AAjNlrUZSkrlXyqLKHKrA9XBis7HSEEJeXTkHcxajZnxJh5yQQsIOqFkAg69eohPt/4tAOTDspRpnPlT0Hzn2jOjZk4Gkk/94y+pME4TZqQornKQAm0tO93Wrg+mvHSLNZM7AC46l1ZpSwGMUlEyZMUomYaKUalKXY9ySzaM0IMTPzFs1H/c3hntrEeL5Aq3EDhppaMzvueD0c8Oka0EYY0NSTj2ji61PCJQ5d1F6PSnN4ExCgSRpYcAX0i1aSVUD0uOJjuJTlSKVAo/1gp4RBhyABpHcMmOFMXYJTGocaizxinAXqYiXSi+gT7B4RkslZKiPMFZUJdqalXUMIvRgJKVAZiSqhAJSFVN6kkd4W4WV4ilKUrIgmp48hRnb0hrK2hLlkCSgZm86nBHcjMacGHCLMd4JeeAgku56/yTgfAIifJy7qZWQgtTdSnmVXV/SmKJCA4DMm6iaqWWJqXs9k2s7kvF52gVWUUngETC54uf9RTMwhBBBGYFwCfNxDEsDyfWCyAlhA8FltNPBKJmqcBCBvHePBKXcdybDpDL4MwSgFzZgZ3CAbs5cnmoxnpWImJKsjJz3W2+kcEpNHAYA2jSTPiBaQAmQAgAAFQXYC5YNw1gcGyNv8IuoD5DQWgkS3dRubDgIZSQGYaRlsD8SHMPFRLyqYCZLUWD2dJDgPq8W7KxaxiilyqXMTmQq7AXSTd6u3I8YYa8SC2lJmMxmnBNMelmVwUDHMckKXLy3LqF/wBOUWNKqD8hyoVjJTy1Hk/v/uPYWWlgoXKRXk1oFtuRw8QPX+EcO2sB8LS5GxUnME5iGAWH8+u89FeaxccoNmYVmH6WUavQVD0YOQKa8aNEcZtWVIJC15VEuwBJsOFoVnba55MuVLKEl3mKc5XBqwBrRhW/eBvLQSE/DvcwH6rP7cdaETBUJmTQ7uATMWR0NXbkY0/wFiUmUUOM4UpRTqxavPh6RlMdialAKxh6AIzuQ1ioEFy4eFUjEspkqIIO6ptNLFxCwd3rCBqtPJFJ2w4P0X2bETQlJMYpO11TsTMlvuABv60vmfsW7Qkm7VxExIR4xbT5lGmgFe0HbBlS8OFKmqCFmgQarCaF1DQk/aGGbi8HolpJd7doCumz1vlSHYnnA8ySak3N2p7QcMelamlqQdTvF/p+8VTga8Aa8qxotcDws98ZbylycBLqfm5k305QtxuzDvKYMBRPa0OZ5azX0vC3a00jJ5merW7wVpNoaQSpBSRmGvGOTU1JuQXrB+0ciq534gaHT2MDplDKAD1L8YKFbceSkaxE5BGscWmOSkVpGE7IXr4mlsgATWRMASkCqiS5ZyNABS9HpBsidKSCVElRf158zzIFIUOU2N7mJYTClZuABqfsNY5rtowr6iFr3EvOPD/p+w9UcNpELDJATqEt684IlT1TVBMtBUsmgYFIfUt9xFaMGhwllKUT5XP2D920jWbB2D4axN8pAowcg8ySz3pFozI844Smo/xYRu2Z6ZOU72ds7wJYlipAdSjqrVuA/YROdMKA4S/N7P8AUwTKmkmpSoU/lI7uQrpSKseQgZlEECqU2D8zq8OjCwnkvN9VmPiaSiWEAACZNBzgUDHUgNUcbsDDf4Ylgy5anzOuYa3GYFQHpGN2rOK5pWpebMN42evlQkOQLUJB1LUEaP4TxhWubJXSiVAWyswKQRwLVvUQFtbyfFNPY4QgngfX+lpVTVNMBsAfrTSCcIl0DkB9B+8UTwoSyCoqoLgPfVmHtBuCQyU8wD7RF/ukeQ9UOv2h7z6LHfEWGMzG5E+bKLFmGpJ4CpOsSkKEsKSkulKS51URdVagO7B6QZtyVkmzZgSpRKUJDJJykvmYvunKA9BcQJs6SlMuarypG7WunUg1U14ztTYseJW5CQYh5AJAqQWJWACBQhYzPpTMVK6GJ4GSJQxAUEqJSlKQbBS3Lh3YpAPtxi/aJCvKM2UeUJY92+5pAi8KUAKmH+IpbswLUfL2AFIvp2kuBU6yUdiRfKY7NwCEjMrELJN8qMpbgTvA9qQ1wmCw+UlKQsC+Y5q8xYX4QMjZ8sy89Ulqs7OCxodHERwCimcqWXICS5P9rDncxqAUvPOdd0VVtjZyMnjSU5Fyt5k0Cg9QRa2o5wQGVvJ+ZOZvznF8uff6cuYhevYQvKmlNXCSAoDoXBHrF6INhB3B7acVNWHUl901hftZBSMqhQgaaw62f4iFZZhcXBvSgLvrX61ivbIcOwLfneCNdlBczaOViJmHBSAl+PeLJaTlYuegvFuOUoqCUOHrQcI9ImkJAzC92t+GGFUkkJGtLxXlrBAYxCYmt4wMr3h2lwKslEUzFxwF+lbQz2ZJXNUJclNXd/0jn+HlAuF2aVnKC5NPLr1ePoHw/sf/AI8s1cnTn9fzrBI4i854SWq1LNOy+SeB6ld2HsVMm5GY3URvHoLgPDcIADr7IH34mBdn4VYJXMLEmzuzW9IKVMFShOc6qLhI/ub2EOgAYC89JK6Rxc82SuzFpSMxDAWSPYDn+8Yfau2Zk9fhpAIFCQ4ANbVAIApZixNon8RbamTF+HLO6k+ajKLNu8q31fSBkIEmhAJLOSWoOWp5aVgLn7jQ4HK0ItMYWb3i3O9kep9B81DD4RhmepN2CQOhavaCNmJAxUvIosCAok3JUHH1PF/SKZm0FmyOjqYD+3XuTDT4YwU5SlZ3GZI3qOCCMoSBTRtPaJjcCaao1EEjIy+U+QF3/QC2+NTuK7fUQRgTmSkjQN6UgaXJXlKZjGlxr1pEMCibLUQkZkHsf8fSBSWyTfViqwlo6dHt63aK2V55pZt5hRnADGvzVBiM7Z8ueZgmJBRrpXi41ijYuFWqWrKwda3NKutRFgPlIg7GAypKtGSTRybcBrygTgXOzwE7e0Y5WH2wqVKmGVh0OolnJJ5Es7BoAXKzzcPLTXeKy36EhnPU5vaBNiAutbEqL3qXq1TFoSZS86gtUuZLyFSBVIUQSB3DdDDQAAwlHvLjZKcrxRIceUlR6odgRyI3u8dluFrzhgouF6EaV41sdRBCZ8paQZYBBoCBQDRP8lKMWicmcUgpe2h+8MDIFLPNhx3cFCTQxcV6RVLJcgHW8ES8rFTBIIqAdRZhpq/aB5Cmu1/aLjzQXAXhH4Kb4hIUGy2VA22loCb1hfjsWB5C2juW5tC+djjNpbpXhprFgzNqC+20h9pKL5UPmZyeukUqw7JHClzcxanGDKQzkWLfvAuNxD5d1mp158oKuaDwjcP8PAH+IXVqBHZmwQqalIfK7FgHGrddKxsJMlJokOfQdTrr+XhhhdnhDk0JpTT2qY87p45JDbjhepn1hi45WRmYT/irC/CITmuVhRIYgsxpS9By1jY4VBmICgzKDi1PekL9u4cqkqSzndb+UhQL9qk8ADGXTtQykeHKWoAs5HINTUinKHgRGdt4SOx+qG6rddfBbnGTpMhJM1bkVyCpMYbbO35k8kURL0Qmgb+Y/N9IWYrFrWeA4d9ecE7OQ29lCrs9Q+hPSBySF2AtLSaNkPecLKKkFKGyIJmGyiagWzBLMnqX5cYvw+ESqYoLUcksOsvVdWAcGrlj6xUmStQOrl1K4ng/D80hhgsAMkxL5yplMCQ+VyQGNSXo8CMjQNqKWgO3k5/r0v8AOOYbbcwqyyghCBoEiwOpIqTZ4e7FxKU7pu5IPEfbnCNICAAzB9P/ALA+hBesTCgNCO7g9KvFGaosORhKanTtm9nFLbeIDFeJxDJyp8690NcCgKmcOEgveMrs+aQsZcxN8qlApYGqq1AANa09IZyNoykrKlElZABX8tLhGqU689TDZ1EZHPzSLdLIDZHHhlanDoCQAHp1+usLviOUpUg/KOj3cA04KINICmfFqTl8NLg6kl7myUg5rcYWbX2wJyC3jLAuJKC4em8Tup/8j0hOWZpBaE7HE7cHFJJGPT45loDauN4AsHpweHAmJVLAC6P8rAPyuwvSMnPC8qkIySEKooFYzqrZajvHoAOkXbOmCQgkqVlOjN4lLJSasLlbcAItFMWUDkfnVTNpA8EswU6mTvAmoWl9/MhaeNCpNqXHvBk6rkXH48I52NTMElaaqSsHIaZmuAbPen7iHWHxqFky3ZYGYZgQ4N6H0I0MaMb2m9pWNqIntoOFFLyFAbx0c/aKJ0+rM8MMUGJzcK/4gKegMVBiXZoaBWeQgsqgNHezQIUEP3hsJrmjBoDmkipDs7fmsWBXApYtFHgTE2B1uawwnzwwpTQiA8WkZSe3eLBFDsr6Rh57MWAf1PpFxnJoqoD2NX6Nb/ULRKOQ5d3jxYWSI9KkKWpL0DsGoaD0I/eMrUz9kO7ytPTwdq47uERtYS56DLch2FXrbgYxk/ZRRN8Igg/qNQRd6RtsXg8iTM8pQAXfXhS8KlSziVpWqXkYVqQTqxrY869IBE4ztPiPknWyf4vB7p+6RSdlt5i3K9OxvDNGHSACE5up+kQn4TJMOUuOx1NDzHGCJcti/wB/tGfqHvY4tJTzJe1aHDheXy0umlREJM3Kp0hmNCBF0yXSkUTpSjb6/wCKwuJLU4TNGJlLqsFJN1JIANXJy1BOjs8cUZAfKpalaBkJ/f6QolIUCR+eloIUFG1ObfsYN2x60fNRsClicYoDKlISk1IFXbjV1QIsZgbv1I9otEtXbl/qLtmYQzZ6ZaC1yTWgEWG5581xpotKEzWlalEtagujkJJoR0Lgjgo8ouWWYLSmYKNMImW/mVLqWGrGjWjcH4PlAKAmKOZ3cAjeuOLd4TYf4MxMo/w5stSXfeJHDRqdjDP+M8ZCW0+obt2u/As5PQABlVJa24CpTjjmSVD27RQqRnc781Z+UO782c/TtH0uRsAZR4q3WGLpc+ucl+tIhtWQqTLUuWApKQSUla02vY1ixjkrj6og1LboLDS9lTUS3nBMtyPDltqCN9n3dakvDNCkTWUgvlUAOIrY6szwpxu3VziAUpQLMgMebqJJPqYB2btAypwUWymiuIB16j8vBdNujJLuqHq4O1b5j8paPaEuxc+UPCPEzTmDRoccoFNFBVDUcHjPz5O85FLiNdhBC8w5u1xBXpk0hbpt9YivEKUSnSvaPTQ7HlF2HQHb9Qv9oIqHhABHGjF2u4+0A45l1H6otxyima1xyMQnyvK1XMWCuBRBWq2fteXLwstC1jMTUCrB2rwYPB+H2/LVMQlAKhokJ1agcsIwEuYb2Mav4Qwz5phF90cuP7RhdmJni+i9dPHHBG6Txz8StQoZgFLAJDZUguARqeKr9IgZIQOpJc3JMHYdAoQ0A4mckuokkPlSBdR4DqYeY0Nw3heee5z8u5WZ2mWmlKd4X3DVib9QRbmOcXyq3TUaEBJ9yI0kjZaTvKYfyJ8o9t48z2aDZOFlpsgDsIWm0kcrtxu0zFqpI27RVLKoIoHQk23lN9HBi2ds2bRSCkjglYD9MyG941E6SlQyqSCDpAA2Uh91x2ce8VboYAOFJ1k18pAqSEnezIPNOX3bKrqIkhSWdx6j/UaCXs1Qpn3eQb2aPDY6dQpXYD7OPWAH9NbeHIzf1A1lqzyUlf8A00qUeQ+9of8Awvg/CzKWlQWaOQbDQd+MEycodKEgl/Kk26nT3j03E+GN8oTyBKj9oZi0zIsoMuqfL3aTQ4qtiBxCQf3PtEpeLSTd+xB9DeMzi/isJDS0PTWjtCfE/E85SFLCU/wyFEAOWLdwQ8SZox1VQxxeGdV9GZ+YgLHyErBCgCCCKiMdsv4+CmSpKQ9HCiPV7DnDc/EMsr8OclSGsSSx7gxYPbdWjuglbyFiMRsaZmXlQpSUkh0h7cWgM7MUryJUTrQn7feNGv4hCZqylCVIcsqqVt/WGN9C8FzfiZK0lK1zWN0jKzNxAD3aE3OkBwFoZrKH2bhz4auIVThlKGU3LNXvCjEkhRT+dof7O2iJilIloKUgOAS5VoTyNvSFO0JZBccY0dDYjorB/UR+8TSVJd37dosxCVVbg46RKfMzKDA83i1ZGVvtp+CHlnuN5SbGTMqUlqkgdCdfSLQagdC461i3aElKyHdr+0U4maEFOWnI8nf7RK7BoDlBA0ZqgxtfgtTyGckhSnHC1u1YymHw7HLR+kNdgY04eaf0KvSxe9PSMaE7XZXs9cztYi1vPK3GLG6ejeoijCygVpI8qUskczc+lO5g/dUHFQdOIgbwQhsgJ1vX3hxeZIpEKnNThEjOLgAEk8vcnSOSMS//ALag2pa/rE0Y4duILxCn4rvhq1cdP2iQln9RfgPykQViX8rNq944rEhIKjTnf0/xHLsdFeDluSToHrAWPngD+IogfpSfvp0EJcdt4lxKGUfrNzzET2MsFCvETnUqgzcKkmAO1DQabkppmlcRbsD6plI2gkABACEnSxbieXSEu3pwmTAElwA3Crm3HSDFSxlKq+ZjXV9AOoiU6YhEopKB4irKSD5Qb8jCry45JTrGtZ7IWZnIJLdB2eI7PIGdKqpmOkjkQ1+w9ILxgpmDE2pxgZGGdn4HsW/3FDTm5WfqS5k24eVJDtPZZkrIqx3kmtUadwaHnDPZu2EqSmXPcpFErYKYfpINxqNQbcIdDDifK8JRY/Ko0qLhzxr6QnxGyjLJSxzilXFbdQT9z1iWjeKd+ea2otQ2VgcEcnAIXvImJZ93NTspXyEWZTA8YkdkrA3pagQLgZxrdix9YWoUpDcW78Ib4DbCpdCVCt0LKdOHlN+Ai1Pbxlc4A4Utg4OaJiZglshHmUaJAaofXoPSGG25YUyhYjo409oqxO00zgc+IU1spCknuEuD6x6aUqkAyypQS6XN9C9LXg2lc/tcrP8A1FgMVnkJOEAKL6Ch53geWalZ6ARZmBB6t3iqai+j25RrrAIQymUHtUv6wtx00FZKtE/vDRbJdJPWFe0Uh0gi/wBGiytH7SY4OSVLdgwu7t7QTiCEpJt5Q3H1gzB4gJkKztWgIbgX0rCTG4wqAFGAFWajUjF4XsrLkbhviGZJLoLjgfp/t4LT8dLBfwwe4p6JeMpMW9oqzU5xPaOHCoNLE424WtPtP4xnTQyRk6Ek/QD1BhRK2vOFpqvY89RAkoCJpl8BrFC956phkUDRtDB8c/dHp21PFDNV6D9os/8AVZ6t3xSRwIS3o0CyZZetosmSaAjhfny5RFuPJVnMiB7rR8gi8PtNYUM4SocQkJPoBlPRo2mHFELQxBfV2ev5+8YKXKJS+kMtkbVmSAQlig3Sfz/EQWBAkYHt7vP3W0TKmDdUHdl+I4ykEgNe7PSAtpKOUFqhrU1cwEj4oSUiWUkJau6D969aRXidoGYkEUuG6fQMaAQWKIPdSztSXwxl5CrnYmoF2vYDna99YjVQATQjRnckpB6jvAqnNfeLcJIUtmdzw9y0Ov08YbXCxO1fI63ZTGWgjLw9K8tbtE5qgs5ZuehIfKCQOBcij+lWi3DoZphLIlPlBbeVQknUtTuQNIQ7SxCgjObUW4eubMK/9poeUZRI3UOFuabTmMXeUfisMBWikkAZruK14j6wDiMMH3SKByGZx00P1izY+3FJJJDpNwzpVdnSSx63HGG+GMmZVJMtRJYEZk6UZsyetdLXgm4j2kxVFZadh0h1AVFiOtqXDw82YD4S0nr7MfYQTjtlrQKpcOWJJIr+ldQzm0DYJwhRFmg8FF4pLa957E2lpACe5eK1DtW/SCZo99ecU4sbo6RprzoyaQE2XQlRdvz7wHjcUGAZ1Bg/AP8A4EFzAyXVbgIV7SlvUcBFuiKxveymT1AYtxBhdjJ9SIIx6lIlpOavBhTuIX4etTzjGeCvWaaRpweFF+EcArSCP+OOMQRLaKJg00q6RJ1q9ovTLpSPSpRIi8IIDEAv+dosEFxypyVgGotbrxi9WJJZLjKBTlA1ixt94jLvWsWCFI4q9CWB1fSLpSnuwbSK5KQK0aK0zHW6bHjHLtxCKUA4A5v7/aCcPN3ANRm+5gILoYLleQU0P1PrBtOO+k/1EkwUfFckhRfnGgwhTKlKVXxCyB/ICHUr/tH/AJDnEPh3ZwUTMX5ZbKPM2Snupo5tGe6ZayzrCyepWQKdE0jtXLbhGPj/AMSWhgu5D8Edt4yxIlplHMKuTyoegJctCjZ0hE+WmUtRSQCCaEBjmQT0U4PI8ocbKw0mbJSlSgnLmBbQqLpUr+V6Po8CYnBqlLyqT4YTmJNHLl72uSaHU6QjGwOBHW1ql21CztkCUrw1AeIm1aEaHgUka+8Up2WrM4LuA5Nu3CNDg9q+GkobMkmjqUAKVcBTNyDC8Z7HbSVMUGOVI0FBf6CHoonO9oYWbqNXtPd5TrCbTVKSZalFZPKw4DlAWIxQCcwAAsAOMJysveIeNRn1hpkDGmwFmyTyPFOKuSHcmvCK9oTAEkJAv6RViZ4ygCw4QKlya24QUqrGcOVWKLisLcQlxDqbKSQ5d37QvxqWBYdIqHWaTQaABSjtuWVSX4VPKF2FICCCavD9UpgEkjfoRpV4WSMOlIqGqaGvvCBC02nGEF4gs/WCJS0s3vEMTLKjul6VaLsOhKRvB6WvFNoTI1D1MqSGYn1iyZMNG9Yo8IG3pEvDp0pEUQiiRjkUSCGCi8RQr8aBUc2guWwI0PtHBS6uEVIQTc04R0Sg5pHgjjfi14IwuCzlKUOoroAOMSg1aql4b/L87QcJBUUpDvQNdyTDlfw3PQUsEkqowXUMNaCnOCpezFSFhSqKSlwwGgAe9N4+jxZkzWEk81wltSwyMDW+KkmVmSiSAWE0BVCHUlKiN7rS2kBbPl+LK8KYlIUzIO86S5KDawKiCIls3aBCHQqiZoN3sEvXQOVesS2gnEImqVlVkJCpagxcFRJBWK5gSXHOFHt3OO455RmDa0BoS6SrEYdbKlsUqLKukh9H8wLdIb4zas5MrKVuDplTR7s75egiybjFEhAWVZQBW2Zqtpd+doU7QUczZuNNXhyHTBx3PCz9TraG1iBxGJe5oIHBDCPJU7xGuhEaOBhZmwuyTleUHOnOIk3paIzB0cxFCnobxG5FEYXHewgpEvdJcBtDr0ig30jpU4JblT9oqXK4jrhRUklxygeZKdx3rS3WOzZxvX8tFciYa5nI01iR4qSCcKW205cooCFGv0q8K0k5HAd7ng9mie1lFRLml2Jt+5iiXMUlID0ag+8IrRGAFZJQqoSdK2ETnSsjDjA0vEF6KbpF+IPEt37xCuXdQpJlg1Ghp+CO5gRR6cIHlTctHB4vHv8AkgFstOsQrWQbRqVpJtFmbLxgATxce8T8d4ikUP6pilQLEHtGg+HNoJkTQtVmIJFSl2r7e8ZGXMqNOUXKxJdgaRIGENzrK+1YeaCoKCgQrLlrzBp1hH8Tzd4hzmKEpA5AuojjUGBvhWYVYRBVYKUB/SCxH19Iv2pgvF8xVnFla31HpURnzOLH2jMYOPDCzOzZikKdLKAoUliLJBdJ0ID9zGhxW1yZaU5cgIcgFSmALDzqLcaQFi5dMq0SgdVpzBTf0eUqP4IBxu0EgMQxUGA4NRn+8P6ZvakOLUhrpezG0HKsnzsliHd6etfWFq5oUrMp+cATdpAlg/eKzNcgBV9HjUDVikHqi5pHy8fxooSsnTpEVyloY+msRmEn5qnTgY4hXa+sKcyeYqzPWAVYk63iInG+naKkeCZbxlMjMIIp1iyTMALmzj0hcqdYjW8CTMUXd3irm0MqzTZwnKy6lEUD0jmWF8jFO/rFiMcHvEgULUGyaS7ac3MoqclxFJWABWPR6ESn2le8ccC3pFmMmOSODRyPRCuqQSC8TVPBPCPR6ICs4r0yaAaPHZM8aiOx6OVrpROJiAxDF49Ho4qGlfZtmp8PBS0taUgnqWUv3Jg7GzNw8yyev2jsegRUOOb81jdu5wp0Ka/sfpGYnYuYqir2J4/teOx6NWI90LClFSEKuTKyrdT/AFijHEBRWk6huXaOR6DBVYbcF6ZtEuCkkAW/GiVVJEzM5djox+9I9Ho5Ec0NGF6fiM26Uh0/leMLppZhxq8cj0ceFaPmlQZqiWcx2ato7HoER3SUwOQo+M1RBGCqbvHo9EMGVEnsr//Z" /></a><span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">As the state of women is declining gradually, it all could be thought of as misinterpretation of those dirty minds who are theirselves transgressors .Leaving the way of the truth aside ,they just for their own interests, want their all wrong to be accepted .They say that they are male and there every decisions should be accepted .In Hindu religion the status of women was never so crippling as it is growing now ,if you are Hindu and belong to Hindustan always remember "Ardhanaarishwar form " of lord Shiva .When God have given equal space to women then who are the men .Nature never discriminates .If a women is absent ,a man can never be born .If there is no man ,a women can not be born .Now say who is less ? A man cannot have more properties than Lord Shiva ...then who gives right to them to abuse women .A women ,if doing wrong ..she needs to be stopped first .Even if she is doing wrong ..she is not on the path of Dharma ,only then she needs to be punished .Rather now a days I am seeing the adultresses are the happiest women while the women who are sacrificing their lives for happiness of their families ,their surroundigs ,their countries are being tortured most....God knows at which path everything is heading .</span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A shloka from Manusmriti says :</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Though Manusmriti has many strict rules for women , it also clarifies that women if are not adultresses they should be treated very carefully .It tells that</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="background-color: white;">
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"Where women are honored there the gods are pleased; but where they are not honored no sacred rite yields rewards," declares Manu Smriti (III.56) a text on social conduct. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"Women must be honored and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands and brothers-in-law, who desire their own welfare." (Manu Smriti III, 55)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">" Where the female relations live in grief, the family soon wholly perishes; but that family where they are not unhappy ever prospers." (Manu Smriti III, 57). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"The houses on which female relations, not being duly honored, pronounce a curse, perish completely as if destroyed by magic." (Manu Smriti III, 58)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">" Hence men who seek their own welfare, should always honor women on holidays and festivals with gifts of ornaments, clothes, and dainty food." (Manu Smriti III, 59)</span></span></div>
<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: justify;">"If a husband deserts his wife, she may marry another." (Manu, chapter IX, verse 77).</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;"><br /></span>The Upnishads and the Rig Veda also describe the status of women at that time .The Upnishads state that these women (<span style="background-color: white;">Visvavara, Shashvati, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Ghosha, and Aditi )</span> conversed freely with the men on the highest philosophical topics .Rig Veda hymns were revealed to Brahmavadinis and Rishikas who discussed hymns with the Indra .They instructed knowledge of Brahma to Him .<span style="background-color: white;">Seventeen of the seers to whom the hymns of the<b> </b><b>Rig Veda </b>were revealed were women -<b> rishikas </b>and </span><span style="background-color: white;"><b>brahmavadinis. </b></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">They were<b> Romasa, Lopamudra, Apata, Kadru, Vishvavara, Ghosha, Juhu, Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Jarita, Shraddha-Kamayani, Urvashi, Sharnga, Yami, Indrani, Savitri and Devayani. </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><br /></b><b>The Sama Veda mentions another four: Nodha (or Purvarchchika), Akrishtabhasha, Shikatanivavari (or Utararchchika) and Ganpayana.</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Yajurveda VIII . 1 - "<span style="background-color: white;">Girls had upanayana performed for them and carried out the sandhya rites. A young daughter who has observed brahmacarya should be married to a bridegroom who is learned like her."</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white;">Nitimanjari 68<b> </b></span><span style="background-color: white;"><i>" na grham kasthapasanair dayita yatra tad grham " .</i></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">Meaning </span><span style="background-color: white;">"Home is not what is made of wood and stone; but where a wife is, there is the home."</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Will Durant </b>(1885-1981) American historian says: </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"Women enjoyed far greater freedom in the Vedic period than in later India. She had more to say in the choice of her mate than the forms of marriage might suggest. She appeared freely at feasts and dances, and joined with men in religious sacrifice. She could study, and like Gargi, engage in philosophical disputation. If she was left a widow there were no restrictions upon her remarriage."</span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Clolonel James Tod studied ancient hindu books and said <i><span style="background-color: white;">" A Hindu Sage says "Strike not even with a blossom a wife guilty of a hundred faults," .</span></i></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></i><span style="background-color: white;">The </span><span style="background-color: white;">idea of equality</span><span style="background-color: white;"> was most forcibly expressed in the </span><b style="background-color: white;">Rig Veda </b><span style="background-color: white;">(Book 5, hymn 61. verse 8). </span><span style="background-color: white;">"The wife and husband, being the equal halves of one substance, are equal in every respect; therefore both should join and take equal parts in all work, religious and secular."</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">“O Maitreya! Always a companion of Vishnu and the Mother of this Universe,<br />Devi Lakshmi is eternal. Vishnu is omnipresent, so is She.<br />If She is speech, Vishnu is the object of description.<br />Vishnu is the Law, and She is the Policy.<br />Lord Vishnu is knowledge, she is intelligence.<br />He is Dharma, She is good karma.<br />If Vishnu is the Creator, She is the Creation (that abides eternally with Him).<br />He is the mountain, She is Earth.<br />He is the virtue of contentment, She is the every satisfying.<br />If Lord Vishnu is desire, She is the object of desire.<br />He is the sacred Vedic ritual, she is the priestly fee…” </span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It is the special injuction of the Vedas that no married man shall perform any religious rite, ceremony, or sacrifice without being joined in by his wife; the wife is considered a partaker and partner in the spiritual life of her husband; she is called, in Sanskrit, Sahadharmini, "spiritual helpmate."</span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"> There are a dozen name of woman revealers of the Vedic wisdom, such as Visvavara, Shashvati, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Ghosha, and Aditi, who instructed Indra, one of the Devas, in the higher knowledge of Brahman, the Universal Spirit. Everyone of them lived the ideal life of spirituality, being untouched by the things of the world. They are called in Sanskrit Brahmavadinis, the speakers and revealers of Brahman.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The <b>Rig Veda</b> too places woman on a high pedestal of sublimity: <b>Yatr nariyastu poojayante ramante tatr devah</b>, where woman is worshipped, Gods preside there.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The great grammarian, <b>Patanjali,</b> author of that monumental masterpiece known as <b>Mahabhashya</b>, uses the formation <b>sakthiki </b>to indicate a female bearer of a spear [iv, 1, 15(6)]. In this connection, we are reminded of the Amazonian bodyguard of armed women employed in his palace by the Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, as described by Megasthenes, the Greek Ambassador to his Court. Similarly, Kautilya in his <i>Arthasastra</i>, which is also taken to be a document of Mauryan history, refers to women soldiers armed with bows and arrows…</span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>In ancient India, Hindu women did not veil their faces rather they enjoyed considerable amount of freedom in society. But repeated attacks on Hindu India by foreigners through centuries changed the situation.</b> During such aggressions, and also when India was under foreign occupation, the honor and chastity of women often became the casualties. There have been numerous cases when Hindu women killed themselves (The Sati pratha ,and the Zauhar )rather than yield to indignities inflicted by the aggressors. As a result, Hindu society, became more protective about its women. The freedom of women was curtailed. To protect themselves Hindu women started to cover their faces with veils and started to stay home. Their participation in social events was greatly restricted.After Mohammadens conquered India ,they treated Indian women very bady so they preffered death ,and voluantrily sought it .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Padmini Sengupta</b> has written in her book, <b><a href="http://s1.amazon.com/exec/varzea/ts/exchange-glance/Y01Y0620936Y6656235/qid=1025581328/sr=1-2/104-0390016-9711923" target="_blank">Everyday Life in Ancient India</a></b>:</span></div>
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<span style="color: #674ea7; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"The position of women in ancient India was free and emancipated, and women were well educated and respected members of society. A wife shared all her husband's privileges and was his companion and help-mate in his activities." The position of women was far better than in other countries of ancient times. How else could it be in a culture which placed the Mother before the Father in priority for reverence? <b>Matr devo bhava</b> - was the first Upanisadic exhortation to the young. So far as we know, Hinduism is the only religion whose symbolism places the Feminine on a par with the Masculine in the profound concept of Siva-Sakti culminating in the image of Ardharnari-Isvara. The Hindu has honored his country as his Motherland - Bharat Mata and his nationalism has grown up from the seed Mantra - Vande Mataram. </span></div>
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-80791284165882384132015-03-08T05:04:00.000-07:002015-03-14T05:09:18.385-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>The Versatile India</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">If you are planning a tour to India ,you have chosen a right place to visit .It is the country full of diversities .But you need to take care of yourself since it is not the same place as it used to be since past .It has now changed enough gradually due to various changes in the interests of the people of India .The main change at this time is that the people are much more affectionate to money,lust and fame for which they can sell their values .Pardon me for annoying you but I am quite true because its happening in India now .And I can easily say that its all an effect of other forein countries .I will discuss it later in detail... But the reality is that few cunning people are destroying the image if India just for their mean gratification.You should read this article to know what India was and what it has become now .Still there are many people who are following their ancient rules and laws ,you may find a glimpse of that lifestyle that influences the whole world most .But I have seen that beside this detreoration that transcendental feeling still flowing in the air of India ,it is really its diviniy that even in this critical condition of this country ,its holding strong in the world . </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">One of the famous American writer Mark Twain has written about India "<b style="background-color: white;">Land of religions, cradle of human race, birthplace of human speech, grandmother of legend, great grandmother of tradition. The land that all men desire to see and having seen once even by a glimpse, would not give that glimpse for the shows of the rest of the globe combined."</b></span><br />
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<b style="background-color: white;">So you are welcome to this amazing place .</b></span><br />
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Since ancient times India's boundaries are continuously changing so its culture has been widely spread throughout a major portion of Asia .Its influence can be seen far away but it may be so that those distant places were once a part of India .During ancient times India was dominated by the Aryans ,who used to speak in Sanskrit language .They ruled India gifting her a best of all time period .That period may be said as the cradle of all Indian cultures .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">As I have read in the history books written by various mordern writters ,India was much better than that .It can be understood by the ancient books ,our Epics and other real characters of that time .Though India has been several times appreciated by many foreigners who have tried to get mingled with its natural environment .The person who lives in India ,who has explored India ,who has seen the versatility ,has felt it and analysed it ,who has felt the spiritualy from deep inside and knows the truth of life ,is the person who can understand the sense of these ancient books and ancient Indian culture .</span><br />
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I see that now a days the researches are prooving many things that have already been said in our past .We accept it when it is endorsed by the western countries .We should trust our theories not blindly but with a reasonable mind .It is not so easy .But atleast we can accept all good things stated there .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Whereas I feel our Indian culture is an inclusion of powerful and positive messages and traditions that can enhance your mental,physical and spiritual skills upto an amazing level.But trust me you can feel it only when you try to learn from deapth of your heart ,leave all your ego and believe in a powerful nature that is running on its own rule that central power that is responsible for governance of all natural rules and laws.</span><br />
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I am going to start a beautiful itineration on this way of Indian Culture and tradition .</span><br />
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India is a place full of diversity .The life is full of various colours or you may say there are various colours of life .The only difference between the two the first one is applied to an individuals life while the second one is applied to the society in which an individual lives .</span><br />
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It is said that the king is the representative of the God .The king can make his kindom better than the heaven and the king can make it worse than a hell ,it all depends upon the king himself.So is the effect of his reign upon the society .Just follow that to know the cultures that has been changing changing and changing ...but cant be erased .Time have brought many changes in India but the truth is that, all are hovering just upon the cradle of this enormously great country .No other country have been proved to be so much civilized since extra ancient time .Take an example of Varanasi "the oldest living city in the world,the city which was already old when Buddha was young .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><strong style="background-color: white;">Mark Twain </strong><span style="background-color: white;">was so much impressed by Varanasi that he writes :</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><b style="background-color: white;">“Varanasi"</b><span style="background-color: white;"> or Banaras is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together.” </span></span><br />
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Whole India has been traversed by the great rulers of India .We can see the impact of those impires on India .During ancient times whole India was dominated by "Sanatan Dharma ".Sanatan means Ancient and Dhrama means religion.At that time dharma meant the "righteous path ".There was no any such division of human beings on the basis of religion .At that time humanity was the main division of "Dharm".And so the world was so beautiful for the Indians .</span><br />
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The Fourth Geneva Convention and Articles 48 to 78 of Protocol I deal with
the humane treatment of civilians, prescribing principles ensuring their safety.
<b>The laws of war relating to occupied territory in ancient India go much beyond
the present international humanitarian law</b> because they also impose an
obligation of establishing a government according to the wishes of the people and
not imposed upon them. You can see that the acharya of the demons Sukracharya in Sukraniti states that the victorious should protect the people of the
conquered territory as his own children, collect revenues and grant a portion of it
to the maintenance of the vanquished king and his family. The soldiery was to
remain outside the occupied village and should not be permitted to enter without
royal permission, and they should on no account oppress the villagers. )<b>The
ancient Hindus were pragmatists. Their resort to war was motivated by the desire
of building up the image of the king for righteousness, as the upholder of
dharma. The king was aware that there is no country without people and no
kingdom without a country. </b>(Source<b> : </b>Australian Year Book of International Law)</span><br />
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No one knows how ancient our culture and civilization is but since ancient times it is told that the situation of the world will be declining continuously .As it is said nothing is everlasting in this world ,so is the case with the earth and this universe too .That very principle is the basis of this chronological division.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It has been differentiated chronologically in four main periods .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Satyug ,</span></span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Treta ,</span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Dwapar and </span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Kaliyug</span><br />
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All four have their traits .</span><br />
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The current hindi name of India as Bharatvarsha ,is named after a Great ruler of India in the transition period between the Treta and Dwapar .Before it India was known as Aryavarta . India had not been divided into four varna and four ashrams until there had been differences among people's nature ,habits and practices .In "Shreemad Bhagawd " epic ,it is mentioned that Brahma created all humans equal ,but human's behaviours differentiated them by ownselves.But later this self differentiation led to evolution of caste system .</span><br />
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Those intellects who were polite ,worked for betterment of society, have rules in life and lived a sacred life .Those who relied on the truth and non violence -were Brahmins .</span><br />
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Those who faught for others rights ,who protected people and could take reasonable decision and judgements .Those capable enough to punish a culprit for his guilt - were Kshatriyas .</span><br />
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Those who had interest in trade and who had craze for wealth, more than anything .Who possessed various qualities of arts - were Vaishyas .</span><br />
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The lazy ,unkempt,selfish by nature .Who had neither truth nor honesty .Who could usurp other's assets easily ,who could cheat and exploit others .Overall you can say who neither</span><span style="color: #0b5394;"> have a complete knowledge nor have will to achieve</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">- were Shudras .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Shreemad Bhagawdgita says:</span><br />
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<span data-scayt_word="यस्य" data-scaytid="380" style="background-color: white; line-height: 20.4799995422363px; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>tadanyatrapi drishyet tattenaiva vinirdishet </i></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i><br /></i></span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20.4799995422363px; text-align: justify;"> An individual should be classified in a particular class irrespective of his birth if he possesses the decisive characteristic of that class. One’s class should be decided considering the holistic picture of the qualities of the class of the person and those of the other classes. - </span><span data-scayt_word="Shrīmadbhagwadgitā" data-scaytid="387" style="background-color: white; line-height: 20.4799995422363px; text-align: justify;">Shrimadbhagwadgita</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20.4799995422363px; text-align: justify;"> 7.21.35</span></i></span><br />
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So you can say that Shudras were not those who were born in a shudra family rather all those person were assumed to be shudra who had a nature like that.</span><br />
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So only action of people decided who belonged to which caste .Caste system was not antihumane as it has been made now .The incomplete mindsets full of ego and selfishness has corrupted this system .Our religious theories say that our birth should be purposeful .We should always try to improve our nature to rise up high in this life .One's successful life was decided by his deeds not by physical assets that he has accumulated (as the trend now a days).</span><br />
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We have seen how maharshi Balmiki changed to a saint (Brahmin) from a decoit (Shudra) ,who wrote whole Ramayan .Now say where there is a differentiation in people on the basis of caste of the family in which they were born .</span><br />
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Now say is'nt our culture beautiful? Where there is no humanity that society becomes a cluster of wolves.</span><br />
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The life span has been divided into four periods by a rule called " aashram " that specifies one's duty in a particular stage of life .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Brahmacharya - The age between 5-16 is characterized by gaining the knowledge either by going to a "guru" or learning by self attainment .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Grihastha -It is the middle period of the life where people contribute mostly to society .The concept of four purusharths Dharma ,Arth ,Kaam are formalized in this period that lead to the forth purushartha the Moksha.A grihastha was supposed to accomplish five maha yagyas by doing five sacrifices everyday to please God ,departed fathers ,fellow men,and other living creatures .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Vanprastha - It is the stage where a person tries to live a mature life .One is expected to win over senses and share his experiences for benefit of society .One should transfer his responsibilities and properties to his heirs and should look for his spiritual elevation.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Sanyas - At this stage one renounces the world and looks forward for the " Moksha ".</span><br />
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Brahmacharya and Grihastha are pravritti dharma which means it involves people in duties while vanprastha and sanyas are nrivritti dharma which means it detaches from duties of this world .</span><br />
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So these were the basic differentiating factor for whole of the society .There were no religion to divide humans .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Broadness of acceptance -</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">India is one of the most ancient countries .It has seen many ups and downs in the past .India had always been a strong and powerful region in context of knowledge, technology ,law and order ,spirituality ,character ,morality etc .It always welcomed the people from abroad .Even a very beautiful phrase is given by ancient Indian scholars who say : "Atithi devo bhav" .Though Indian heritage is totally based on our ancestors "the Aryans " yet other foreign invasions in India have their impact on it too .So besides our main heritage we are hiring other cultures too .And today India is a result of this syncretism.One can see the greatest variety of cultures in India .Each and every difference tells a different story .A great amalgamation of different culture makes India a most tolerant and amazing country of the world .Everything is here but still what lucrates the intellectuals more ,is again its fundamental heritage from the real natives ,the Aryans ,whose foundation is perfect enough to make you feel eternal .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Since ancient times India has seen so many foreign invasions .Each time people came here with different cultures .It all have its effect upon Indian culture because those people who lived here ,they entirely mingled with its culture with their own and came in existance a new syncretic culture which brought equillibrium .You can see a very nice example of such syncretism with the Mughal Emperors,specially the great ruler Akbar.He was so much influenced by Indian culture that he could not stop himself to defy the orthodox rituals of his own religion .To make Islam more flexible , humanitarian , philosophical and real ,he propounded a religion Deen-e-Ilahi which was more influenced by Hindu Philosophy.Similarly you can see variou invasions and their effects on India.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Go to History of India .</span></span><br />
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</span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">How beautiful india is destroying -</span></span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-86430096848956188842015-03-06T04:30:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.397-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Knowledge and Science </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">India has always been a knowledge hub of world .It is full of intellectuals .Since ancient times it has been a place of scholars .Our epics and ancient history shows the power of knowledge of the sages .They could predict future ,they could represent theirselves everywhere they wanted .They could walk through the spaces .They had such a powerful mind that they could communicate with other minds too .Previously people had objections with such thoughts but nowadays scientists are thinking about these critical logics .They are trying to achieve what has been written in our history .So many examples you can see .The boon of maharshi Vyas made Sanjay capable of seeing the distant sight in the battlefield of Kurukshetra. But the knowledge of ancient Indians could be interpretted by evidences too .Further to the Dwapar when the reign of king Parikshit ended came kaliyug and one can get the evidences of the works of ancient Indian intellectuals like Baudhayan, Aryabhatt ,Kautilya etc .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Many of the ancient european philosophers ,scientists ,authors ,historeans have given very impressive statements about the India and Science in India :</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">French astronomer Jean-Claude Bailly corroborated the antiquity and accuracy of the Vedic astronomical measurements as "more ancient than those of the Greeks or Egyptians." And that, "the movements of the stars calculated 4,500 years ago, does not differ by a minute from the tables of today."</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Carl Sagan stated, "Vedic Cosmology is the only one in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology."</span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">Nobel laureate Count Maurice Maeterlinck has said: "a Cosmogony which no European conception has ever surpassed."</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">The theorem bearing the name of the Greek mathematician Pythagorus is found in the</span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Shatapatha Brahmana</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"> as well as the </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Sulba Sutra</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">, the Indian mathematical treatise, written centuries before Pythagorus was born.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Voltaire, the famous French writer and philosopher) stated that "Pythagoras went to the Ganges to learn geometry.</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><span style="color: #0b5394;">Lin Yutang, Chinese scholar and author, wrote that: "India was China's teacher in trigonometry, quadratic equations, grammar, phonetics... " and so forth.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Francois Voltaire stated: "... everything has come down to us from the banks of the Ganges."</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Decimal system, based on powers of ten, where the remainder is carried over to the next column, first mentioned in the <i>Taittiriya Samhita</i> of the <i>Black Yajurveda.</i></span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Binary number system, essential for computers, was used in Vedic verse meters.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Vedic Verse Metre </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">For more information go to </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"> <a href="http://www.gosai.com/science/" style="text-decoration: none;">Vedic Mathematics</a>.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Let me introduce you with the Scholars of ancient India .You will be really surprized to see the grip of these intellects over science without any advanced technology .You can see the reach of Science and tech in India in the ancient times .</span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Baudhayan -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was the first mathematician (600 BC)whose mathematical approaches could be find in the written form .His book "Sulva Sutra" comprises various mathematical concepts among which the presence of that principle is notable which has quite later been discovered by Pythagoras and well known as Pythagorean theorem .The concept of pi came in existance in his creation ,though its real value was drawn out by Aryabhatt .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Aryabhatta </b></span></span><br />
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" 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" /></a><span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The famous mathematician and astronomer , born in Taregana near Patna(mentioned as Kusumpur) in Bihar in 476-550 .but there is also contradiction about his birth place .Some people say that he was born in Ashmaka a place situaed between M.P. and Maharashtra .But he passed his life in Kusumpur during the famous "golden age of India" i.e Gupta Dynasty. The famous books writen by him are Aryabhattiya , Dashgitika and Tantra. His works are proved to be the milestone in the elevation of further science world .He has also been mentioned as the head of Nalanda university .You will be surprized to know that at that time his calculations were strong enough to predict the circumference of earth 39968.0582 kilometers ,which is just 0.2 percent less than the real value 40075.0967 kilometers .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Some of his remarkable works are -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://scontent-b-hkg.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xpa1/v/t1.0-9/10347239_492401204226457_5365883792152511045_n.jpg?oh=b2fc201c73053aa0631a1ca64dac3f76&oe=558CA117" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://scontent-b-hkg.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-xpa1/v/t1.0-9/10347239_492401204226457_5365883792152511045_n.jpg?oh=b2fc201c73053aa0631a1ca64dac3f76&oe=558CA117" style="text-align: left;" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><br /><span style="color: #0b5394;">Calculation of Pi </span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The introduction of Zero to the number system though there are some contradiction in science world about it .But his works reflect the presence of zero and other numerals of place value system .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He gave the world the universal constant for the spheres Pi .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In geometry we can get his contributions in finding important mathematical formulas for estimating the area of triangle , the volume of sphere ..</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In astronomy he gave a description of solar and lunar eclipse .He calculated the sidereal year as 365 days ,6 hours ,12 minutes and 30 seconds .He gave a scientific description of eclipses and described the structure of solar system .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In Arybhattiya ,he has written various verses in sanskrit describing various principles of mathematics .It consists of alzebra ,arithmatics ,trignometry even advanced mathematics rules like quadratic equations , continued fractions , sums of power series and have also been included.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Brahmgupt -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Brahmagupta was a mathematician and astronomer from Bhinmal Rajasthan (598-670).He wrote two books Brahmasputshiddhant and Khandkhadyak .He is mainly known for various computations on zero and modern number system .His contribution to mathematics is definitely admirable.He was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain. In mathematics ,he worked on Alzebra (linear equations,quadratic equations ),Arithmatic (Series and computations on zero) ,diophantine analysis(Pythagorean triples and Pell's equation) ,geometry (his own formula for cyclic quadrilaterals and triangles) and Trigonometry (sine table,interpolation formula).</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In geometry he gave a rule that is named as Brahmagupta Theorem which states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is orthodiagonal ,then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the diagonal always bisects the opposite side .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Kanad -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was a sixth century sage and philosopher who founded the philosophical school of vaisheshika was the author of Vaisheshika Sutra .He was born in Prabhas kshetra in Gujrat near Dwarika .His real name was Aulukya .His was named Kanad for he had interest in minute particles that are called Kana in Sanskrit.His biggest achievement was the concept of atom or Anu .It was quite later described in modern science that matter is made up of small particles that are called atom but in India people knew this quite earlier .He said that matter is made up of Anu and it can not be subdivided .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Bhaskar I -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Indian mathematician and Astronomer born in Bori in Parbhani district of Maharashtra (600-680) .He wrote two books on Astronomy named Mahabhaskariya and Laghubhaskariya .His contributions comprise writing numbers in Hindu decimal system where he intoduced first the circle symbol for zero and his commentry upon Aryabhatt's work where he gave a rational approximation of the Sine fuunction .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mahaveeracharya -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A mathematician from Mysore in ninth century (850).His work is Ganit Sara Sangrah. He discovered the current method of solving LCM .So LCM was known to Indians long before Jhon Napier Worked on it .He has also described Set theories,alzebric equations,series ,logarithms and exponents .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Bhaskar II or Bhaskaracharya -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was a great mathematician and astronomer born in Bijapur ,now in Karnataka (1114-1185).He has been called as the greatest mathematician of medieval India. He work on Sidhhant Shiromani and Karan Kautuhal .The first one consists four parts named Lilavati,Beejganita,Grahaganita and Goladhyaya dealing with Arithematic ,Alzebra,Mathematics of planets and Spheres respectively.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Leelawati covers calculation, progression, mensuration,permutations etc.Newton worked on calculus 500 years later to Bhaskar II.Beejaganita describes Zero,Infinite ,positive ,negative numbers ,inverse cyclic method for solving equations and indeterminate quadratic equations , including Pell's equation ,Surds.In Grahaganita he discussesd the motion of planet where he stated instantaneous speeds of the planets .A very important discovery we can see in his work ,is the glimpse of Rolle's theorem and mean value theorem .He also showed engineering skills .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> A very b'ful statement from book </span><i style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilavati" style="background: none; text-decoration: none;" title="Lilavati">Lilavati</a></i><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, where he says: "In this quantity also which has zero as its divisor there is no change even when many quantities have entered into it or come out of it , just as at the time of destruction and creation when throngs of creatures enter into and come out of Him, there is no change in the infinite and unchanging [Vishnu]".It thrills me ! Again a learned endorsed the feature of infinite God . </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Parmeshwara -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">Vatasseri Parameshvara Nambudiri</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> (1380–1460)</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> was a </span><span style="background-color: white;">mathematician </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">and </span><span style="background-color: white;">astronomer</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> of the </span> Kerela school of astronomy and mathematics .He wrote commentaries on the work of Bhaskar II wherefrom he expanded and discovered Mean Value Theorem that has been used for inverse interpolation of the sine. He was first to give the radius of circle with an inscribed quadrilateral which was discovered by <span style="background: none rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #0b0080; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px; text-decoration: none;"> Lhuilier 350 years later .</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Varahmihir -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Varahmihir (505-587) was a contemporary mathematician and astrologer of Aryabhatta born in Avanti region and lived in Ujjain .His famous books are Panch Siddhantika and Vrihat Samhita .Panch Siddhantika consisted the principles of astronomy .And Vrihat Samhita covers many subjects of human interests.Climate ,animals ,insects ,encironment ,earthquakes even social topics marriages etc are also a part of discussion in his text .Like he have stated that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of underground water.He was also an astrologer .His mathematical contribution includes discovery of trignometric formulas ,defining the alzebric properties of zero and negative numbers .He discovered a version what is known as Pascal's triangle and used it to calculate binomial coefficients .In Physics he described reflection and refraction .</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Nagarjun -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">An Indian (Brahmin earlier) Buddhist philosopher in tenth century from Vidarbha Maharastra.Nagarjuna had a good knowledge of chemistry .He used specially treated minerals and chemicals for theraputics use ,that were called Bhasmas .He have described many physical systems of body like circulatory system and blood tissue mentioned in his work as Rakta Dhatu .In his work "Rasratnakar" he has described metallurgical process for extracting Metals like Gold ,Silver etc. He also tried to transform base elements into gold but he was unsucessful .But he imitated gold with gold shine like alloy .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Acharya Hemchandra -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(1089-1172) was a Jain Scholar ,Mathematician and Philosopher .He was born in Dhandhuka Gujrat . He gave a recursion relation which was later known by the name Fibonacci series .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Poineers in Medicine -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Charak -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He is reffered as the Father of medicine .He was a maharshi (sage) belonged from Kashmir (800 BC) .His book Charak Samhita talks about several diseases , treatment and remedies for them .He was the first person to bring the concpt of immunity ,digstion and metabolism .He was well acquainted with the genetics .He was the first to follow 'Prevention is better than cure' doctrine. His book consists 12,000 shloka and talks about 2,000 medicines .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Susruta -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A pioneer in surgery from Kerala (600 BC) who has got his name from Devanagari word Shushrut which means very famous .Bower manuscript from 4th to 5th century talks about him to be one of the ten sages who lived in the himalyas .From texts it comes clear that he has worked in Kashi and learned surgery from Lord Dhanvantari The God of medicine .He wrote Sushruta Samhita ,where he has mentioned over 1100 diseases.It is noticeable that he has mentioned 26 kinds of fever ,8 types of jaundice and 20 types of uninary complaints ,six typesof dislocations and 12 types of fractures .He has described over 760 plants with medicinal properties.Besides the process of surgery ,he have described the symptoms and treatment of the severe diseases like Angina pectoris(hritshool) ,diabetes,hypertension ,leprosy ,obesity and stones .There is also description of plastic surgery and Anasthesia .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Patanjali -</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Patanjali was born in gonda district of Uttar Pradesh in 200 BC .His two works Mahabhashya and Yoga sutra are known to us .Mahabhashya is a commentry by Patanjali on the work "astadhyayi" of Panini .Yoga Sutra talks about the Yoga tradition which is much older .Its refrences can be found in the Gita narrated by Lord Krishna himself where he have given a detail on practicing the Astang yog sadhana in the chapter named Rajvidyarajguhyayog .Yoga has its root in Vedas .Here the focus is on the mind "Chitta" where the wandering and unstable mind is focussed on a single thought to uplift the and purify the motions of mind .It leads to a state of divine realization of self conciousness .It connects your energy state to the energy of the universe ,which makes you feel to have a new circulation of energy in your body .And practically it happens which causes to uproot severe illness from your body that cant be erased by taking medicines even .Rajyoga is mental yoga while Hathyoga is physical yoga .Hathyoga aims at removing body illness and restoring healthy body .Yoga is performed with the auspicious divine word 'Aum or Om' which is considered as the cosmic sound flowing through the ether .</span></span></div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-21421192510123700202015-03-06T03:57:00.005-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.285-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">River Systems of India </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The rivers in India are classified as follows -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1)The Himalayan River System</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)The Peninsular River System</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Himalyan River System</b> -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Himalyan rivers are formed by melting of snow and glaciers and therefore they are perennial .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Indus river (3,180 km)-It originates from Mansarovar lake (Western Tibet) and flows through India and thereafter through Pakistan and finally falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi .Its main tributaries are Jhelum (725 km) from Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh ,Beas (470km) from near Rohtang pass and Satluj (1,050km) from Mansarovar Lake .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ganga river(2,510 km)</b> </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Origianting from Gangotri Glacier in the Uttarkhand ,traverses through Uttarakhand ,Uttar Pradesh ,Bihar and West Bengal states and forrms the Sundarbans delta before it drains into the bay of Bengal .The rivers Bhagirathi and Alakhnanda meet at Devprayag to form the Ganga River .The Bhagirathi river rises at the foot of Gangotri glacier ,at Gaumukh .Alakhnanda river from Badrinath and Mandakini river from Kedarnath .Yamuna is the Largest tributary of the Ganga ,which meets it at Allahabad .Other tributaries are Ghaghara ,Gandak ,Kosi,Gomati and Damodar .In Bangladesh ,the Ganga is known as the Padma .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Brahmaputra river (2,900 km)</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">This river originates from MAnsarovar Lake (Western Tibet).In Tibet ,it flows in the name of Tsang Po and when it enters in India ,it is known as Dihang.The main Tributaries of this river are Sibansiri,Dhansiri,Manas,Teesta and Kameng .Before it enters Bay of Bengal ,it is known as Meghna.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> .</span><br />
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Peninsular River System</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">These are seasonal rivers as their flow depends mainly on rainfall.They carry about 30 percent of the total discharge .These can be divided into following categories .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">a)East flowing rivers</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">b)West flowing rivers</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">East flowing rivers -</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Mahanadi (890km) - Mahanadi rises from the north-west of the Deccan Plateau and enters into the Bay of Bengal.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Godawari(1,450km) -Godavari rises from the Western Ghats and is the longest peninsular river system .It is also called Vriddha or Dakshin Ganga ..</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Krishna(1,290km) - Krishna rises from the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar and enters into Bay of Bengal .It is the second largest peninsular river system .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Cauvery(760km) - Cauvery rises from the western ghats and enters into the Bay of Bengal .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b><b>West Flowing Rivers </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Narmada(1290km)-Narmada rises from Amarkantak Plateau(north-west of Deccan Plateau)and enters into the gulf of Khambat .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Tapti(724km)- Tapti rises from north west of Deccan Plateau and flows into the Arabian Sea</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Sabarmati(416km) -Sabarmati rises from Aravali and flows in the Arabian sea.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Periyar (300km) - Periyar rises from Sahyadri and enters into Arabian Sea.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sharavati -Sharvati rises from Sahyadri .It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa falls(289m).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some rivers in Rajasthan do not reach the sea and make inland drainage .The Ghaggar is an inland drainage river .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Water Bodies of India </b>-</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1)Chilka Lake is the largest lake of India and is in the state of Odisha .It is also the largest brakish water lake of India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Wular Lake is the largest fresh water lake of India ,present in Jammu and Kashmir .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)Sambhar Lake is in Rajasthan .Salt is produced from this lake .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some other important lakes are Dal Lake in Jammu and KAshmir,Pulicat and Kolleru in Andhra Pradesh and Vembanad in Kerala .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Important gulfs in India</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1) Gulf of Kachchh(Gujrat)- It has the highest potential of tidal energy generation .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Gulf of Cambay(Gujrat)-River Tapti Narmada,Sabarmati,and Mahi drain into it.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)Gulf of Mannar(Tamil Nadu) -It is the first Marine Biosphere in Asia .</span></div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-35731040115301025822015-03-06T03:45:00.002-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.320-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Climate in India</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">In broad terms India experiences four seasons </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1-Winter(January-February)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2-Summer(March -May)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3-Mosoon(June-September)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4-Post-monsoon,also known as north-east monsoon in the Southern Peninsula(October-December).</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">However the monsoon is the main season .India experiences rain during the following monsoons .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1-<b> South west Monsoon</b>-</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Lasts for four months ,from June to September and is known as summer monsoon .It blows from sea to land after crossing the Indian Ocean ,the Arabiam Sea and the Bay of Bengal .India receives 86 percent of the rain during South West Monsoon .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">2-<b>North East Monsoon</b>- </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Lasts froms the month of November to December .It is also called Winter Monsoon and blows from land to sea .It is effective in smaller areas .Tamil Nadu,Kerela,sometimes Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">During the monsoon ,several regions experience rainfall above 200 cm..Assam,Meghalaya,Sikkim and West Bengal .Some areas experience lesser rainfall (below 50 cm ).Western Rajasthan ,South East Punjab,Laddakh and Southern Haryana .</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-18847232616250218572015-03-06T03:43:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.279-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Topology and Physiography of India </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Location </span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India ,a part of Asian continent,located in Nothern Hemisphere of the globe,from 8 degree 4 minutes N to 37 degree 6 minutes N Latitude and from 68 degree 7 minutes E to 97 degree 25 minutes E Longitude .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is the seventh largest country in the world ,accounts 2.40 percent of the earth's total surface .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Area and dimensions</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The total area 3,287,263 sq km.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Distance from North to South 3,214 km.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Distance from East to West 2,933 km .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Total length of coastline 7,516.60 Km.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The largest coastline is in Gujrat;second largest coastline is in Andhra Pradesh.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Total length of land frontier 15,200 km.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">India accounts for 2.40 per cent of the worlds total surface and 16.70 per cent of the world's total population .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Boundaries and points</b> </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">East - Myanmar(Burma) and Bangladesh.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">West- Pakistan,Afghanistan and Arabian sea .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">North -The Himalyas ,Nepal,Bhutan and China .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">South- Sri Lanka and Indian Ocean .Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait seperates India from Shri Lanka .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The southernmost point of the Indian Territory is Indira Point (in Nicobar Island:6.74 degree N 93.84 degree ).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Islands of India :</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Andman and Nicobar in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep ,Minicoy and Amindive Islands in Arabian Sea .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Physical Presence or Physiography </span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The main land is broadly divided into</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1) The mountains</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)The Plains</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)The plateau</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4)The dsert</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">5)The islands</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The mountains extend for more than 2,400 km.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1)Himalyas</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Peninsular mountains</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Himalyas</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Himalyas border India on the north,north west and the north east .It comprises three parallel ranges -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Himadri</b>(the Great Himalayas or Higher Himalayas );</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is the Nothernmost ,longest and the most continuous zone in the Himalayas .The average altitude of the zone varies from 4,800 m to 6,000 m.It rises to its maximum height in Nepal containing 9 of the 14 highest peaks on the Earth .It contains Mountain Everest (8,848 m)in Nepal,Mount Godwin Austen or K2 (8,611 m),Kanchenjunga(8,586 m),Mount Makalu(8,485 m),Mount Dhaulagiri(8,172) etc .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Himachal (the Lesser Himalayas or the Lower Himalayas ): It lies between the Himadri region in the north and the Shivaliks to the south ,so the Himachal region forms the middle section of the Himalayan mountain chain and this region has an average altitude of 3,700-4,500 m.This region contains the passes and glaciers and as many as 110 mountains in the Himalyas rising to heights up to 7,300 m or more above sea level.The important range includes Dhauladhar ,Pir Panjal and Nag Tibba .The important hill stations includes Shimla, Chail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Darjelling .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Shivaliks (the outer Himalayas or the Sub -Himalayas ): It forms the southern most zone of the Himalayas .The shivaliks are also the lowest and the narrowest range in the entire Himalayas and this region has an average elevation of about 900-1200 m.The name Shivalik is a Sanskrit word literally meaning 'Belonging to the Lord Shiva' .The important ranges include Karakoram,Zanskar,Patkai,Garo,Lushai,etc.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Peninsular mountains</b> -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Aravalis (Rajesthan )- The oldest mountain range in the world .The highest peak is Guru Shikhar ,where Mount abu(1,722) is situated .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Vindhya Mountains -It seperates the Indo Gangetic plains from the Deccan Plateau .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Satpura Range-It lies between river Narmada and Tapti.The highest peak is Dhoopgarh(1,350) near Panchmarhi.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Western Ghats or Sahyadris- The average height is 915-1,220 m and length is 1,600km.The southern part is seperated from the main Sahyadri Range by Palghat Gap(link between Tamilnadu and Kerela).Other passes are Thalghat(connects Nasik to Mumbai)and Bhorghat(connects Pune to Mumbai ) .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Eastern Ghats -The average height is about 610 m.It lies in the eastern coast from the boundary of the eastern coastal plains.The highest peak is Mahendra Giri(1,501 m).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Nilgiris or the Blue Mountains - It is the junction between the eastern and the western ghats .The two highest peaks are are Doddabetta and Mukurti.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The highest peak in peninsular India is Anaimudi(2,895 m) in Anaimalai Hills.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Glaciers of India </b>-</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">A Glacier is a large,slow moving mass if ice formed from compact layers of snow .Presently glaciers cover nearly 15 million square km or about 10 per cent of land surface and contain 2.15 percent of all water on Earth,Ninety-six per cent of all glacial ice on this planet is in Antarctica(84.50 percent) and Greenland(12 per cent),both of which are nearly covered by glciers .Australia is the only continent lacking glaciers.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">There are mailny two types of glaciers</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">a)Alpine glaciers,which are highland glaciers that flow slowly down a valley in a mountaneous region,such as a river of ice,and</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">b)Continental glaciers and ice sheets,which can cover larger areas.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some of the major glaciers are</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Siachin Glacier is the largest glacier out side the polar regions and largest in the Himalayas -Karakoram range.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gangotri Glacier is located in Uttarkashi district ,Uttarakhand</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Rathong galcier is an important glacier situated in Sikkim .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Plains -</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">These are formed by the valleys of the Ganga,Yamuna,Brahmaputra,Indus,Godavari,Kaveri etc .It consists of four divisions-</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">1)Bhabhar lies along the foothills of outer Himalayas or Shivaliks.It is highly fertile .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Tarai re emergence of streams and it is the zone of excessive dampness.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)Bhanger has older alluvium deposited by the flow of rivers .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4)Khadar i sthe new alluvium soil and forms the flood plains along the river banks.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Great Nothern Plain is formed by the deposits of three major rivers-Indus ,Ganga and Brahmaputra and their tributaries .Its average width is 150-300km.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Punjab Haryana Plains </b>-This plain in Haryana is formed by the Yamuna river .The punjab plains is made up of Doabs(land between two rivers ),formed by the river beas,Ravi,Chenab,Jhelum and Indus.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Gangetic plains</b> -This forms the largest part of the nothern plains covering Uttar Pradesh,Bihar and West Bengal.These are formed by the Ganga and its tributaries .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Upper Ganga Plain is formed by Ganga and its tributaries Yamuna ,the Gomati and the Ghaghara rivers .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Middle Ganga plain is formed by the Ghaghara,the Gandak and the Kosi rivers .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The delta occupies most of the lower Ganga plain.The Ganga is divided into several channels n this region .A large part of thsi delta is covered by tidal forest ,also called the Sundarbans .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Brahmputra Plains</b> - These plains are formed by the deposits of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries .This plain is also known as Assam Valley.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The west coastal plain - Extends from Kanyakumari to Surat .The Nothern part of the Western coastal plain is known as Konkan and the southern part of it known as Malabar Coast .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The East Coastal plain - extends from the West Bengal-Odisha border to Kanyakumari.These are much wider than the west coastal plain .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Most of it is formed by the deltas of river Mahanadi,Godavari,Krishna and Cauvery.The eastern coastal plain is also called the Coromandal coast .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Plateau</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The plateau is a large ,flat area of the land that is higher than the surrounding land.It lies on the south of the Indo-Gangetic plains,flanked by the sea on three sides .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Important plateaus :</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Malwa plateau</b> -It is a region in west-central nothern India,and has volcanic origin .The average elevation of the plateau is 500 m.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Deccan Plateau</b>- It is also known as the Peninsular Plateau or the great pennsular plateau ,is located between three mountain ranges and extends over eight Indian states .The Peninsular Plateau is flanked on side by the Eastern Ghats where the average elevation is about 610 m and on the other by the Western Ghats where it is generally from 915-1220 m .It is the largest plateau in India ,made up of lava that flowed from fissure erruptions .It lies to the south of Indo gangetic plain.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Chhota Nagpur Plateau</b> -It lies in eastern India.It is made up of three smaller plateaus: Ranchi,Hazaribagh and Kodarma .Ranchi plateau is the largest among these three with an average elevation of 700m.Total area of Chhota Nagpur is approximately 65,000 sq km.</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Desert</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The desert region lies in the western and nothern part of India .It can be divided into two parts :</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Great Desert: Thisdesert region extends from rann of Kachchh ,beyond the Luni river northwards .The great Indian desert is world's seventh largest and also Asia's third largest desert .It lies mostly in the state of Rajasthan .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The little destert .These extended from the Luni river,between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur upto north west.It is seasonally marshy saline clay desert located in the Thar desert biogeographic province in the state of Gujrat .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Islands of India</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India's terretorial limits include 248 islands .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">There are two groups of islands .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">a) Andman and Nicobar Group :</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Andmans comprise o group of 204 islands at the nothern cluster (largest is the middle Andman )and the Nicobar comprises islands at the southern cluster (Great Nicobar is the largest one ).The highest peak in north Andman is Saddle Peak(737m).Most of the islands are volcanic in nature .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">b) Lakshadweep</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is a group of 27 coral islands in Arabian sea ,comprising the Lakshadweep Island ,300 km west of Kerela .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">10 degree channel seperates Andman from Nicobar</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Duncan Strait seperates south Andman and little Andman</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">9 degree channel seperates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">8 degree channel seperates Minicoy Island from Maldives</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-88612725155507782302015-03-06T03:27:00.004-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.404-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Forests in India</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India covers about 2 percent of the world's total forest area .The total area under forest land in India is 21.05 percent and Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest area.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India has six types of forests</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1-Evergreen forests (Tropical forests ):Found in the areas that receive an average 200-300 cm of rainfall .Average annual temperature is 20-27 degree centigrade .and average humidity is more than 80 percent .It is found in the Western Ghats and Sub Himalayan Regions.Trees that grow in these forests are teak,rose wood,ebony and bamboo .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2-Deceduous forests (monsoon forests ) - found in places that receive lesser rainfall between 150 -200 cm,have an average temperature of 24- 28 degree centigrade and humidity is about 75 percent.Trees found in these forests are sal and sandal wood and are spread across Maharashtra ,Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3-Dry forests -found in those areas that receive scanty rainfall between 75-100cm ,have an average annual temperature between 23-29 degree celcilus and humidity 50-60 percent .Trees found are Palm,Acacia etc .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">4-Hill forests - Found in Himalayas and Southern India .Trees found are oak ,pine ,deodar ,walnut,maple ,chestnut etc .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">5-Tidal forests (mangroove)-Found in coastal submerged plains of Ganges(Sundarbans),delta of Mahanadi and Godavari .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">6-Grasslands-found in hilly area of Himalayas ,Deccan hills above 100m,low lands as in Punjab ,Haryana,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar and riverine grassland .</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-82049547328305953122015-03-06T03:26:00.004-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.389-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Agriculture </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b>About 60-70 percent people in India live on Agriculture and about 50 percent (approx 142.42 million hectares) of total land under cultivation .There are two major crop seasons :Kharif and Rabi</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1)Kharif crops sown in June-July and harvested in September-October.Main cultivations are rice,jawar,bajra,ragi,maize,cotton and Jute .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Rabi crops are sown in October-December and harvested in April-May.Main cultivations are wheat,barley,peas,rap seed,mustard and gram .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some Landmarks in Indian Agriculture</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Green Revolution :To increase agricultural output,Green revolution was launched in 1967-68 .The first Green Revolution took place mainly in the states of Punjab,Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to increase wheat production .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The second green revolution(1983-84) happened mainly in eastern states including Odisha,Bihar ,Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Part of Uttar Pradesh .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Due to the impact of green revolution ,the wheat production got doubled and rice production increased by 53 per cent .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Operation flood -To increase the milk market in urban areas ,operation flood was launched in 1970-81 in collaboration with the world Bank .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Operation Flood II-It was launched in 1981 and was extended to all states .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Operation flood III- (1985-90) waslaunched in 1985 during the seventh five year plan .These programs were implemented under National dairy development Board and Indian Dairy corporation .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Banking on these programmes ,India became the second largest producer of milk in the world,only next to United States .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Irrigation and Agriculture -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Due to climatic positions ,agriculture in India mainly depends on rains .However rainwater is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the agriculture .There are others methods used for providing water for cultivation ,called irrigation .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Methods of Irrigation -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Wells account for about 47 percent of the total irrigated land in the country .These are mainly used in Uttar Pradesh ,Punjab,Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Tanks supply water to about 10 percent of the total irrigated areas .These are mainly used in central and southern India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Canals account for about 40 percent of the total irrigated areas .These are mainly used in Uttar Pradesh ,Punjab,Haryana and Odisha .</span></div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-35266773854622114022015-03-06T03:25:00.001-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.315-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Minerals of India</b> </span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India is a rich source of minerals ,such as iron,mica,manganese and bauxite .Other minerals are also found here .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Iron- Found in Odisha ,Bihar,Jharkhand ,Andhra Pradesh,TamilN adu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa.India has Iron's world's largest reserves (about 25 %).</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Coal -Bihar ,West Bengal,Odisha,Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra,Andhra Pradesh ,Assam.India's third largest producer .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Manganese - Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat ,Karnataka,Jharkhand ,Andhra Pradesh.India is third largest producer of Manganese in the world .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mica - Jharkhand ,Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh ,Tamil Nadu.India has largest Mica reserves in the world .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bauxite(Aluminium Ore) -Jharkhand ,Gujrat,Chhatisgarh,Tamil Nadu,Karnataka, Maharashtra Jammu and Kashmir ,Odisha .India is third largest producer of bauxite .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Crude Oil - Assam ,Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Kutchh,Maharshtra,Gujrat .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gold - Karnataka ,Andhra Pradesh ..</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gypsum - Rajastha ,Jammu Kashmir and Tamilnadu.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Zinc - Andhra pradesh ,Gujrat ,Maharshtra ,Meghalya ,Tamil Nadu ,Orissa ,Sikkim ,Rajasthan .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chromite -Odisha ,Jharkhand,Karnataka,TamilNadu ,Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra , Manipur .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Dolomite - Madhya Pradesh ,Orissa , Gujrat ,Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra ,West Bengal ,Arunachal Pradesh .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Diamond - Madhya Pradesh ,Bihar ,Orissa.</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-87174913631959384512015-03-06T03:24:00.003-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.400-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Soils in India</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Indian types of soils are broadly divided into the following groups -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Alluvial Soil - It is composed of sediments deposited by rivers and waves .Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world .It can be divided into</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Khadar (new) and Bhangar older,more clayey )alluvium.It covers a major part of the total soil and is found in the Indo-Gangetic plains in Punjab ,Haryana,Uttar Pradesh,Uttarakhand,Bihar and West Bengal.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Black Soil - The soil is composed of rich mineral soil (Fe and Al) formed by the deposition of lava ejected by volcanoes and is ideal for cotton cultivation.It is found in the Deccan Plateau in Maharastra ,Madhya Pradesh ,Gujrat, Chhattisgarh,Odisha,Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka and Tamil Nadu .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Red Soil -It is formed by weathering of Metamorphic and crystalline rocks ,having high iron content ,and is ideal for cultivation of rice ,millets ,tobacco and vegetables .It is found in Andhra Pradesh ,Chhatisgarh ,Madhya Pradesh,Odisha Jharkhand and Karnataka .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Laterite Soil - It is formed by weathering of lime of rocks and is suitable for tea ,coffee,rubber ,cinchona and coconut .It is found in Andhra Pradesh ,Maharashtra ,Eastern Ghats ,Odisha ,Kerela and Karnataka .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Forests Mountain soil-</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">It is formed by plantation of tea, coffee, ,spices and tropical fruits .It is found in the Himalyas and other ranges in the North and in peninsular region .</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-22682423710502527292015-03-06T03:22:00.003-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.297-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Transport and Communication </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">There are four transport system in India .They are -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Railway Transport </b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">India's Railway network is the fifth largest(62,658 km) in the world and second largest in Asia .The United States has the largest Railay system in the world(about 240,000km connecting 48 continental states)Russia(154000),China (86000) and Canada (72,961 km) come after .</span><br />
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" /></a><span style="color: #0b5394;">It is the biggest public undertaking in the country also the largest employer in the world .(1.60 million employes).On 16 th April 1853,the first train in India ran between Mumbai and /thane ,a distance of 34 km.The second train steamed off from Howrah to Hoogly in 1854 .In 1929 ,the first electric train Deccan queen ran between Bombay and pune .The electrified system of Indian Railways is the second largest in the world next to Russia.The fastest train in India till now is "Bhopal Shatabdi Express " which runs at the speed of 140 km/hour .The total Number of railway stations in India is about 8,000.The longest railway platform in India is in Kahragpur (West Bengal).The longest train root is Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari ,a distance of 3726 kms.which stretches across 10 states .The Himsagar express runs on this route .The highest number of trains terminate in Mumbai.First Metro train started in Kolkata on 24 October 1984,commuting between Dumdum and Balgachhiya .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Nothern Railways is the largest railway zone and accounts for 10,995 km.North East Frontier is the smallest railway zone and accounts for 3,860 km.Fisrt hospital on wheel started in Mumbai on 16 July 1991.known as Jeevan Rekha or Life Line Express .It caters to the medical needs of people in rural areas .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Road Transport </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">India has a vast road network of about 3.34 million km ,which includes National highways ,State highways major district roads and rural roads .National Highways and orders are controlled by Central Government ,State highways by state governments and district roads and rural roads by respective district administratives .Roads carry about 50 percent of the road traffic and about 80 percent of the total passenger traffic in the country .National highways carry about 40 percent road traffic in the country .Maharashtra has the maximum length of roads in India .NH-7 is the longest road in India .</span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Renumbered_National_Highways_map_of_India_(Schematic).jpg" height="640" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="585" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />National Highways of India </span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Work on golden Quadrilateral Project will connect the four metropolitan cities :Mumbai,Chennai ,Kolkata and Delhi and will cover a distance of 5,952 km is still going on .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Air Transport</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>History</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jahangir Ratan ji Dadabhoy Tata was the first person to make a flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931 .Tata Airlines started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvanantpuram in 1935 and between Mumbai and Delhi in 1937.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Developments -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In 1953,private airlines were nationalized and Indian Airlines and Air India were formed .Ministry of Civil aviation is responsible for</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">formulation of national policies and programmes for development and regulation of civil aviation.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">devising and implementing schemes for orderly growth and expansion of civil air transport .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Overseeing the provision of airport facilities ,air traffic services and carriage of passangers and goods by air .</span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img src="http://image.slidesharecdn.com/indiaairportinfrastructure-111012060224-phpapp02/95/ppt-map-on-india-airport-infrastructure-1-728.jpg?cb=1318417470" height="480" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Public Sector Undertakings under Ministry of Civil Aviation</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Airports Authority of India (AAI)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Indian Airlines and its subsidiary</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The AAI was formed on 1 April 1995 by merging the National Airports Authority.(NAA) and the International Airports Authority of India (IAAI).The corporate headquarters (CHQ) is at New Delhi.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Air India manages international operations ,while Indian Airlines manages domestic operations .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">AAI manages and operates 127 airports ,including 12 international airports ,90 domestic airports and 26 civil enclaves at Defence airfields.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">AAI controls and manages the entire Indian airspace of 2.80 million Nautical Miles an land,1.75 nautical miles of ocean space and restricted land area of 0.37 million nautical miles square .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">AAI has Civil Aviation Centre in Fursatgarh,near Allahabad,toprovide ground training to the pilots along with other services .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Pawan Hans Limited operates helicopter services to oil sector.hill stations and remote areas.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">A number of private airlines also operate in India .Jet airways ,King fisher Airlines ,Indigo Airlines ,etc.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">There are about 370 fleets operating in India presently and it is expected to reach 500-550 by the end of 2010.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">India ranks third in the world ,only next to China and the United States,in terms of number of flights .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The number of air travellers is about 0.80 percent of the total population .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<b style="color: #0b5394;">International Airports In India </b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Amritsar International Airport (Rajasansi Airport) - Amritsar.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bangalore International Airport -Bangalore</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chennai International Airport (Meenambakkam airport) - Chennai</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chhatrapati Shivaji international airport -Mumbai</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chochin International Airport -Kochi</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Goa Airport - Vasco Da Gama</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Hyderabad international Airport - Hyderabad</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Indira Gandhi International Airport -New Delhi</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International Airport -Guwahati</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport - Kolkata</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel International Airport - Ahmedabad</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Trivendram International Airport -Thiruvanantpuram</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Water Transport</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways ,which comprise rives,canals,back waters and creeks,out of which 3,700 km is navigable by boats .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually throug the water ways .Inland water authority of India (IWAI) came into existence in 27 october 1986 .The objective of IWAI is to develop and regulate the inland waterways for shipping and navigation. Its head office is in Noida .Its regional offices are located in Patna ,Kolkata ,Guwahati and Kochi.Sub offices are in Allahabad ,Varanasi,Bhagalpur,Farakka and Kollam .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Three waterways has been declared as national waterways (NW).They are -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1) NW-1:Allahabad -Haldia stretch(1,620) of Ganga ,Bhagirathi and Hoogly river system.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)NW-2:Sadiya - Dhubri stretch (819 km) of Brahmaputra River .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)MW-3: Kuttopuram -Kollam stretch(205 km) of west coast canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal canal.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ports in India</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">India with a coast line of about 7,617 km has 12 major ports,the minor and intermediate ports are administered by the relevant departments or ministries in the nine coastal states of West Bengal,Odisha,Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu,Kerela,Karnataka ,Goa,Maharashtra and Gujrat .India has 28 shipyards ,out of which 7 shipyards are under the control of the central government,2 shipyards are controlled by state governments and 19 are privately owned shipyards .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">About 95 percent of the India's foreign trades by volume and 70 percent by value moves through ports .</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="448" src="http://www.iiem.com/em/shipping/shipping_img4.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><h3>
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></h3>
<h3>
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Sea Ports in India </span></b></h3>
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</tbody></table>
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-22355231986823647682015-03-05T17:32:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.290-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">History of India</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Ancient India</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b>
<b>Indus Valley Civilization was first thought to be the oldest civilization in India but now you can see that there are many evidences to prove that Vedic civilization originated in India and predates Harappan culture .The Aryan invasion theory is now refuted by many historians .</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b>
Though till now it was thaught everywhere that Aryans came in India from other european countries in 1500 BC but many archeological evidences show that this is not a true fact .Even at the time this when this theroy was proposed at that time many historian doubted this becaus ethey never found a solid evidence for this .Even there were speculations about the right chronological description to the Historians .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Max Muller, the principal architect of the Aryan Invasion theory, admitted the purely speculative nature of his Vedic chronology, and in his last work published shortly before his death, </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy,</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"> he wrote: "Whatever may be the date of the Vedic hymns, whether 15 hundred or 15,000 B.C.E., they have their own unique place and stand by themselves in the literature of the world."</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Archaeologist James Shaffer in 1993 refuted Aryan invasion theory .Till now there have no evidence of Aryan's dwelling outside India in the Vedas and archeologically no evidence for foreign intrusion has been found .Even no other sources talk about any linguistic ,cultural or genetic evidences .</span></span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/sarasvati-map-crop.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/sarasvati-map-crop.jpg" height="280" lowsrc="http://archaeologyonline.net/indology/culture.gif" style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; height: auto; line-height: 21px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 100%; text-align: center; width: auto;" width="296" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /><span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The dried up Sarasvati River basin</b></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">In Rig Vedea there is refrence of the mighty Saraswati river more than fifty times .</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">High resolution satellite images have verified descriptions in The Rig Veda of the descent of the ancient Sarasvati River from it's source in the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea.See the image where blue line is depicted for Indus river and Saraswati river system is in green .It proves t</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">he drying up of the Sarasvati River was subsequent to the origin of the Rig Veda and this verifies Rigveda originated around 300 B.C.E prior to the drying of Saraswati River bed around 1900 B.C.E .You will be surprized to know that these two dates are according to the dates enunciated by Rigveda itself .</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">The drying up of the Sarasvati River around 1900 B.C.E. is confirmed archaeologically. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">There are more than 2,500 Archaeological sites, two-thirds of which are along the recently discovered dried up Sarasvati River bed.</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #0b5394; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #0b5394; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Some of the evidences are -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, DejaVu Serif, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, DejaVu Serif, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">If Harappan Culture was earlier culture than Vedas ,how could the symbols mentioned throughout the vedas like the divine word Om ,the auspicious sign of Swastika and the leaf of the holy Banyan tree , are found in the Harappan seals ?</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, DejaVu Serif, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span></span></span>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/siva-linga-harappa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/siva-linga-harappa.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><br /><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Shiv lingas from Harappa</span> </b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">This piece of pottery from the lowest level of Harappan excavations with pre-harappan writing is deciphered as </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">ila vartate vara,</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">referring to the sacred land bounded by the Sarasvati River, described in the </span><i style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;">Rig Veda.</i></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The three stone Siva Lingas found in Harappa by M. S. Vats in 1940. The worship of the Siva Linga is mentioned in the <i>Maha Narayana Upanisad</i> of the <i>Yajur Veda</i> and is still ardently practiced today.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/dvaraka-door-socket.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://archaeologyonline.net/sites/default/files/imported/indology/dvaraka-door-socket.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />The remains attesting the <br />port city of Dwarka.</span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The ancient port city of Lord Krishna as described in Mahabharat and other Vedic literature in Dwarka excavated in the Arab ocean .In Mahabharat's Mausala Parva in a Sanskrit verse the inundation of Dwarka in Sea is mentioned as</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">niryate tu jane tasmin sagaro makaralayah</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">dwarkan ratnasampurnan jalenplavayattada</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">(Mahabharat ,Mausali Parva,7,verse 40)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Iron arrows and spear heads excavated from Kurukshetra has been chronologically dated as 2,800 B.C.E by thermoluminence process .It is the actual date of war given within the Mahabharat itself .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif;">The three cities Paniprastha, Sonaprastha & Indraprastha ,that were given to the Pandavas in Mahabharat ,excavations also support the antiquities found from these sites ancient subsequent to Mahabharat .</span><b style="background-color: transparent;"> </b></span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><b>Vedic Civilization (4000-10,000 BC) -</b></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px;"><b>The Early Vedic Period -</b></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> Aryans were distributed throughout the eastern Afghanistan,Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh called the land of seven rivers .They lived in the families that was termed kulas headed by the kulpas or grihpatis and in villages or gram headed by grammi.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> Sabha the counciil of tribal leaders and Samiti a general assembly of tribes ,exerciesed deliberative or military power .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> Women held a respectable social status and participated in relegious ceremonies and tribal assemblies.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">During this period ,the four Vedas were composed .Rigved , Samveda , Yajurvveda and Atharvaveda .Rigveda is considered to be the oldest relegious text in the world ,which consists of 1028 hymns (suktas),the prayers to God and also the Gayatri mantra (Address to the Sun) .Samveda is derived from the root Saman ,Which deals with music.Yajurveda deals with the procedure for performance of sacrifices .It has two main texts named : the White Yajurveda (consists of mantras) and the Black Yajurveda (consists of commentry in prose ).Atharvaveda deals with medicines .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> The Upnishads are the main sources of philosophy .There are about 108 Upnishads .They condemn ceremonies and sacrifices .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner and deals with the socio economic and polotical life of Aryans and their beliefs .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The Aryanakas ,known as forest books ,was meant for the hermits who lived in forest .These manuscript dealt with mysticism and philosophy ,opposed sacrifice and emphasised on meditation .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->In Vedas nature worship is preffered .People at that time did not believe in Idol worship .They worshipped in open through yajnas .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Later Vedic Period</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->This age is also known as the epic age because the two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were written during this period .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Various states are known since this time such as Kosala ,Videha ,Kuru,Magadh,Kaushambi ,Kashi,Avanti,Panchala ,Ayodhya ,Mathura etc .Till then the society has been reconstructed on the basis of four fold caste system .Position of the King grew considerably.The Kings performed sacrifices such as Rajsuya (Royal consecration) ,Vajapeya (including a chariot race) and for supreme dominance over the kings ,the Aswamedha yajna (horse sacrifice ).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> The caste system divided people as Brahmins,Kshatriyas,Vaishyas and Shudras .Brahmins were priests and teachers.The Kshatriyas were rulers and soldiers .They together made the peers of society .The vaishyas were traders ,artisans and farmers .And the shudras were the uneducated people who served the other three classes .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Agriculture became the dominant economic activity .Internal and foreign trade flourished .The diet of the people included rice ,wheat ,barley milk and milk products ,vegetables and fruits.Fish and flesh of oxen,sheep and goats were also included .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->People worshipped God .Main two diety wereLord Vishnu and Pashupati (Lord Shiva).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->There were six Vedangas ,namely Shiksha (deals with pronunciation) ,Kalpa (deals with rituals) ,Vyakarana(deals with grammer ), Chhanda (dealt with metre) , Nirukta (dealt with etymology) and Jjyotisha (dealt with Astronomy).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->There were six schools of Indian philosophy called Shad Darshan .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->There were also four upvedas :Dhanurveda (of Yajurveda dealt with the art of warfare),Gandharvaveda (of Samaveda dealt with art and music),Shilpaveda (of Atharvaveda dealt with architecture) and Ayurveda(of Rigveda dealt with the medicines .</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Indus Valley Civilasation (2500-1500 BC) - </span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->It flourished around 2500 BCE,in the western part of South Asia ,whhich is modern Pakistan and western India.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The Indis Valley Civilization belongs to the Bronze Age,which flourished in India on the banks of river Indus.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->This civilization extended from Manda (Jammu and Kashmir)in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra ) in the south and from Sutkagan Dor (Palkistan-Iran border )in the west to Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)in the east .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The major citiies of this civilization were Mohenjo-daro in Sindh ,Harappa in West Punjab,Chanhu-daro in Sindh ,Kalibangan in Northern Rajesthan ,Lothal in Gujrat,Banawali in Haryana and Surkatada in Gujrat .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The Indus Valley Civilization had a very systematic town planning on the lines of grid system.The houses were made of bricks.There were no stone buildings and there was a proper drainage system .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Major crops grown here were wheat ,barley,rice,dates mustard sesamum and cotton (first in the world) and grains were stored in the grainaries .</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Indus Valley Civilization </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">-> People were very fond of ornaments (gold,silver,ivory,copper etc)and cotton fabrics.Tools were made up of copper and bronze.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->There existed inter regional trade and forign trades with Mesopotamia ,Bahrain etc .Barter system was used to exchange materials .The unit of measurement was 16 (16,32,64,160,320,etc).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->People used to worhip God .Main deities were mother godess symbolizing fertility and Protoshiva (Pashupatinath).They also worshipped Banyan tree ,animals and birds.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Their script is not deciphered satisfactorily and there is no conclusive proof of the connection with the Dravidian languages or even with Sanskrit .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Causes of decline of this civilization was recurring floods,drying up of rivers ,ignoring defence etc.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Growth of Buddhism and Jainism</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">As the Brahmins monopolized over the society ,other castes started revolting against them,which resulted into the rise of several schools of thought.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The movement was spearheaded by Kshtriyas of the royal family Magadha,which helped in propagation of Buddhism and Jainism .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Buddhism -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Gautam Siddharth ,a Saka prince , was the founder of Buddhism.He was born in 563 BCE on Vaishakha Purnima day at Lumbini nea Kapilvastu in Nepal .His father Suddhodhana was a Saka ruler and Mahamaya,who died after seven days of his birth .He was brought up by his step-mother Gautami.At the age of 16 ,he was married to Yashodhara ,a cousin of the same age ,and had a son named Rahula.When he was 29,he left the palace in search of truth (renunciation).He attained enlightenment at the age of 35 at Gaya in Magadha ,under a Banyan tree .He delivered the first sermon at Sarnath(Varanasi) and attained Mahaparinirvana(death) at Kusinagar (Gorakhpur Distt)in 483 BCEat the age of 80.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Doctrine of Buddhism -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some of the fundamentals of the teachings of Gautam Buddha are as follows:</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The four Noble Truths :</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1-Suffering is an inherent part of existence.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2- The origin of suffering is ignorance.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3-The symptoms of that ignorance are attachments and craving and</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4-Attachment and craving can be ceased by following an eight fold path .which will lead to the cessation of attachment and craving.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The noble eight fold path is the right understanding ,right thought,right speech,right action ,right livlihood,right effort,right mildfullness and right concentration .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Nirvana is the state of being free from both suffering and the cycle of rebirth by following the eight fold path .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Buddhism believes in Nonviolence ,Law of Karma and existence of God .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Laws of Buddhism is scriptedin Pali language.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Vinaya Pitaka deals with the rules of disciplines in Buddhist monastries.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Sutta Pitaka is the largest treatise and deals with the collection of Buddha's sermons.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with the explainations of the philosophical principles of Buddhist religion.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other buddhist texts ,which provide information about the then Sri Lanka andits people.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Jataks are also the Buddhist texts that include fables about the different births of Buddha .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Jainism -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jainism was propagated by non-Brahmins .It was founded by Rishabh Dev ,the father of king Bharat .It became a major religion under Vardhman Mahaveer.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The first Tirthankara (Prophet or Guru ) was Rishabhnath (emblem:bull) and teh 23 rd was Parshwanath (emblem : snake) whereas the 24th was Mahaveer (emblem : Lion) .The main teachings of Parshwanath were non-injury ,non-lying ,non stealing ,non-possesssion .Mahaveer adopted one more with all these which was Brahmacharya (celibacy).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mahaveer was born to King Siddhartha and queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12th April according to Gregarian calender .He was married to Yashoda and had a daughter ,whose husband became his first deciple .At the age of 30 Mahaveer renounced his home ,gave up his worldly possessions and spent 12 years as an ascetic .He attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya at the age of 42 on th 10 th day of Vaishakh ,outside the town of Jrinbhikgrama .Then onwards ,he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and his followers were known as Jains He attained Nirvana at the age of 72 years ,four and a half months at Pawapuri near Patna on the last day of the Indian and Jain Calenders ,Diwali in 527 BCE .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Doctrine of Jainism -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jainism believed in the following principles -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Rejected the authorities of the Vedas .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Rejected the existance og the God .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Discarded the sacrifice and the rituals .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Attainment of salvation by believing in penanc and dying of starvation.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Universal brotherhood .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Belief in ahimsa in word,thought an action towards all living beings</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Some of the fundamental teachings of Mahaveer are -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">To liberate oneself one should rely on right faith (samyak-darshan) ,right knowledge (samyak gyan) and right conduct (samyak -charitra).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">At the heart of right conduct (for jains )lie the five great vows -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1-Non violence (Ahimsa)- to cause no harm to any living being.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2-Truthfullness (Satya) - the speak the harmless truth only .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3-Non stealing (Asteya) - to take nothing not given properly .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4-Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge in no sensual pleasure .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">5-Non possession/non attachment (Aparigraha) -To detach completely from people, places and material things .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The teachings of jainism were compiled in 14 books called Puranas ,later these were converted into 12 books called angas ,written in Andhra Magadhi and Prakrit dialects .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jains were divided into two groups in the first Jain council held in Patliputra (modern Patna) - Digambara who remained unclad and Shwetambaraa who wear white clothes .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Magadha Empire</b> -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanpadas or regions in ancient India .The core of the kingdom was located in the area of Bihar of south of the ganges .Its first capital was Rajgriha (modern Rajgeer)then Patliputra (modern Patna).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Haryanka Dynasty (684-413 BCE)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty .HE expanded the Magadha kingdom by conquering Agra (east Bihar ) and entering into matrimonial relation with Kosala ,Vaishali and Madra .His capital was Girivraja (Rajgir).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ajaatshatru </b>(492-460 BCE)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ajaatshatru imprisoned and killed his father Bimbisara.Under his rule ,the dynasty reached at its peak .He extended the Magadha empire by annexing the Lichchavi kingdom .Buddha died during his reign .He arranged the first Buddhist council at Rajgrih in 483 BCE under the chairmanship of Mahakassapa in which Bodh education was scripted in two books named Sutapatika and Vinayapatika .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Udayabhadra</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mahavamsa says that Udaybhadra eventually succeeded his father ,Ajatashatru,moving the capital of Magadha kingdom to Pataliputra ,which under the later Mauryan dynasty would become the largest city in the world .He has believed to have ruled for sixteen years .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Shishunga Dynasty rulers</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The rulers of shishunga dynasty included the following :</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Kakavarna (394-364 BCE) succeeded his father Shishunga . Kshemadharmam (618-582 BCE), Kshatrayujas (582-55 8BCE) and Kalasoka ,who has arranged the second buddhist council at Vaishali in 383 BCE under Sabakami .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Nanda Dynasty</b> (344-323 BCE) -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Nanda dynasty was found by Mahapadam Nanda .It was the first non Khastriya dynasty .Mahapadamnanda added Kalinga to his empire .Dhana Nanda ,the eighth son of the founder and the last Nanda ruler was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya .Alexander invaded India during this period .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Foreign invasions</b> -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Cyrus of Persia was the first foreign conqueror to invade India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Darius I (522-486 BCE) the great grandson of Cyrus ,annexed Indus Valley in 518 BCE .Darius III enlisted the Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander .The control of Persia became weak on the eve of Alexander's invasion .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Alexander (356-323) ,a Greek ,ascended the throne of Macedoniaafter the death of his father Philips in 334 BCE .By 329 BCE he annexed Persia upto Afghanistan.He crossed the Hindukush mountains on May 326 BCE and invaded India.At that time north-west India was ruled by small independent states such as Taxila ,Punjab(by King of Porus) and Gandharas .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In the battle of Hedaspes (326 BCE) ,Alexander crossed the Hydaspes (Jhelum river) and took porous by surprize .Only Porous put up a tough fight against Alexander ,and other kings submitted meekly.Alexander moved towards the river Beas with a will of annexing Magadha ,but his soldiers refused to cross the river .Failing to persuade the soldiers ,he ordered his soldiers to retreat .The retreat began on October 326 BCE .After reaching Babylon (Baghdad) Alexander fell seriously ill and died on June 323 BCE merely at the age of 33.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Maurya Dynasty</b> -(322-185 BCE) -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Maurya empire ,was founded by Chandra Gupta Maurya.It marked a new epoch in the hitory of India .It was a period when politics ,art ,trade and commerce eleveated India to a glorious height .It originates from Kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (modern Bihar,eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal )in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent .The empire had its capital city at Patliputra (modern Patna) .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Chandragupta Maurya</b> -(322-298 BCE) -</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dyansty overthrowing the last Nand king Dhana Nanda .He established Maurya empire in 321 BCE with the help of Chanakya also known as Vishnugupta and Kautilya , whom he assigned as his teacher .He expanded his empire not only to most of the Indian subcontinent but also pushed its boundaries upto Persia and Central Asia conquering the Gandhara region .He faught a long battle with Seleucus Nicator (a general of Alexander ,who acquired the throne of babylon after the death of Alexander ) and with the treaty of 303 BCE ,he won the battle in trans Indus region .During his reign ,Megasthenes (a Greek Ambassador) was sent by Seleucus to his court .Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from throne for his son Bindusara .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Bindusara</b> -<b> (320 - 272 BCE )</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor after Chandragupta Maurya .During his reign the empire extended Southwards upto Mysore .He had two sons Susima and Ashoka ,who were the viceroys of Taxila and Ujjain respectively .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Greeks called Bindusara as Amitrochates or Allitrochades (derived from the Sanskrit word Amitraghat that means the slayer of enemies ).He was also called Ajathashetru (which means man having no enemies )in Sanskrit .He conquered 16 states and extended the empire from sea to sea .The empire included whole of India except Kalinga (modern Odisha) and the Dravidian kingdoms of South .Deimachus ,the greek ambassador ,visited his court .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ashoka the Great (304-332 BCE)</b></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br />Samrat Ashoka</b></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ashoka was crowned in 268 BCE ,four years after the death of his father Bindusara .Ashoka ruled almost over entire Indian subcontinent .His empire was stretched from Present day Pakistan ,Afghanistan in the west to the present day of Bengladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east and as far south in the Brahmagiri in Krnataka and peninsular part of Southern India .</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTQxW6vTgTTUW5uo-hrZC-6MbLZLB3XzGYLDduQxHWIKnz42ruswg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTQxW6vTgTTUW5uo-hrZC-6MbLZLB3XzGYLDduQxHWIKnz42ruswg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><br /><span style="color: #0b5394;">India during Ashok's reign</span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ashoka conquered Kalinga in 261 BCE .He embraced buddhism after witnessingthe mass deaths of the war of Kalinga ,which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest .He was later apponted as Dharma Mahapatra to propagate Buddhism across Asia and established monuments ,marking several significant sites in the life of Gautam Buddha .He also sent missionaries to Ceylon(modern Srilanka),Burma and ahead .His mission was propagated by his son Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ashoka's inscriptions were written in Brahmi ,Kharoshthi ,Aramaic and Greek languages .The emblem of India (Lion) has been adopted from the Ashokan pillar at Saarnath .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Brihadratha - </b>The last Mauryan king ,who was assasinated during a military parade by the commander-in-chief of his guard ,the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE .He started Shunga Dynasty in Magadha .</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Kingdoms after the Mauryan Empire</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In North west India ,the Maurya empire was succeeded by by some dynasties of Central Asia .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Indo Greeks : The Greeks were first to invade India ,who were also known as "Bactrain Greeks" (who ruled over Bactria ).The most famous IndoGreek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE) also Known as Milinda .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Shakas or Scythians (A branch of Iranian Shakas ) -</b> The Greeks were followed by Shakas .Vikramaditya ,the King of Ujjain ,defeated Shakas in 57 BCE and with this victory commence the era of Vikram Samvat .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Parthians </b>- They invaded India at the begining of the Christian era .Gondophares was their famous king .during whose rule St. Thaomas visited India to propagate Christianity .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Sunga Dynasty (184-75 BCE) - </b>The founder was Pushyamitra Shunga .He was succeeded by his son Agnimitra (central character of KAlidasa's Malvikagnimitra).There were 10 Shunga rulers .It was a period of revival of Bhagwatism .Patanjali's Mahabhashya and yogasutra were composed during thsi period .The last ruler of this dynasty was Devabhuti (rule from 83-73BCE).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Kanva Dynasty (75-30BCE)-</b> The founder of this dynasty was Vasudeva .This dynasty was followed by Satvahanas .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Kushaan Empire -(1-3 century ) -</b>The Empire was created by the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi confederation .Kanishka was their most famous king .He started the saka era in 78 CE.He patronized Buddhism and held the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In eastern ,Central and Deccan India the Mauryans were succeeded by dynasties such as Shungas,Kanvas and Satavahanas .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Saatvahana Dyansty (60BCE - 250CE) -</b> Simukha was the founder of this dynasty .The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra shatkarni . They rule in deccan and central India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Southern Kingdoms -(Sangam Period)</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The history of the southern kindom can be learnt fom Sangam literature .Sangam wa sthe assembly of Tamil poets held under the royal patronage .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Pandyas </b>- Their capital was located at Madurai .They had trade links with Roman empire .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Cholas - </b>Kaveripattinam was their capital .The Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka .They also maintained a nnavy.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Cheras </b>- Vanaji was their capital .The famous ruler of this dynasty was Senguttuvan .who was also known as Red Chera .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Gupta dyansty (320-550 CE)</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Founded by maharaj Shree Gupta .The dynasty is a model of classical civilization .This period is also known as Golden Age of India.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Chandragupta 1- (319-335CE)</b>- The coronation of Chandragupta marke the begining of Gupta era.He acquired the title of Maharajdhiraj .</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQJPbsBErchPu7sEqd71IJOpIRfsEZ0dHw1Ms5wddV-goCCfawa" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQJPbsBErchPu7sEqd71IJOpIRfsEZ0dHw1Ms5wddV-goCCfawa" /></a><br /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Gupta Empire Under Chandragupta<br /> Vikramaditya </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Samudragupta -(335-375 CE)-</b> Known as the Nepolean of India .He was the son of Chandragupta I.He waqs also called Kaviraaj ,as he had composed many poems .He was presented as playing the lute (Vina) on his coins .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Chandragupta II - (380-413CE)- </b>He is the most glorious king of this dynasty .He acquired the tilte of "Vikramaditya" by defeating Rudrasimha ,the king of Ujjain .His court was adorned with 'Nine gems ' (Navratnas ) .Fa Hien ,the chinese pilgrim ,vistited India during his reign .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Contributions of Gupta dynasty -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The Guptas issued gold coins .The Buddhist monastry ,Nalanda,was established by Kumaragupta .Bhagwad gita was written ancient history was represented through the 10 incarnation of Lord Vishnu .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The famous statues of Buddha at Bamiyan (Afghanistan )and Ajanta paintings belong to this period .</span><br />
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<a href="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQHIbEoLX6mJBNFUVUM1xSn8T1S_9yRDvUkdJumNX_IT19qb981pQ" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQHIbEoLX6mJBNFUVUM1xSn8T1S_9yRDvUkdJumNX_IT19qb981pQ" /></a><span style="color: #0b5394;">->The great Poet and dramatist Kalidasa belonged to this period .Some of his works are Abhigyan Shakuntalam ,Kumarasambhawam ,Meghdutam, Malvikagnimitram ,Ritusamhara ,Raghuvansham etc .Some of the other authors were Sudraka (written Mrichchakatikam) ,Bhairavi(written Kiratarjuniya) and Vishnu Sharma (written Panchatantra ) .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">->The great mathematician Arybhatta wrote Aryabhattiya and Surya Siddhanta .His greatest contribution are mentioning the value of the first nine numbers ,use of zero in place value system, calculating the value of Pi and inventing Alzebra .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Varahmihira wrote Panchsiddhantika and Brihatsamhita .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">->Dhanvantari ,the great physician ,lived during this period .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Other dynasties and rulers -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Harsha Vardhana (606-647 CE)- the last hindu king of Nothern India ,Harshavardhan belonged to Pushyabhuti family .Kannauj was the capital of his kingdom .He wrote three plays :Priyadarshika ,Ratnawali and Nagananda ..Banabhatta ,his court poet ,wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari .Hieun Tsang ,a Chinese traveller ,visited his court ..</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chalukyas(6-12 CE)- The Chalukyas from Karnataka can be divided into three parts</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1- Chalukyas of Badami (Early western era)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2- Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later western era)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3-Chalukya of Vengi (Eastern era )</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Pulakesin I was the founder of Chalukya of Badami .Pulakesin II was its famous ruler .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Rashtrakutas (735-973CE)- </b>They succeeded the Chalukyas .Its founder was Dantidurga .Their king Krishna I built the Kailash temple at Ellora .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Pallavas -</b> Simhavishnu was the founder and their capital was at Kanchi .Narshimhavarman founded the town Mamallapuram .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Gangas -</b> They reigned in Odisha .Narshimhadeva built the Sun temple at Konark and Anatvarman Ganga built the Jagannath temple at Puri .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Cholas -</b> This dynasty was founded by Rajraj I and its capital was Tanjore .HE built Rajrajeshwari temple (Brihdeshwar Shiva temple ) there .The last ruler was Rajendra III .The modern concept of panchayati raj has been borrowed from the local self government system of the Cholas .Natraj ,the dancing image of Lord Shiva ,belongs to this period .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Palas of Bengal - </b>Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala and their capital was Monghyr.Other rulers of this dynasty were Dharmapala ,the founder of Vikramshila university (and revived Naland university ) and Mahipala .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Pratiharas - </b>The founder of this dynasty was Nagabhatta I and their famous ruler was Bhoja.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Yadavas -</b> Singhara and Ramachandra were the major Yadav rulers .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar -</b> The kingdom was laid in Deccan and wa sco-founded by Harihara and Bukka .Krishnadeva Raj was their most famous ruler .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Rajputs -</b> They were divided into four clans -a) Pratihara (Southern Rajsathan ) b) Chauhans(east rajasthan c) Chalukya or Solankis (Kathiawar),d) Parmars or Pawars (Malwa) .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chandelas built the Mahadev temple at Khajuraho in 1000 CE .The Solankis of Gujrat built the Dilwara temple at Mount Abu .</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-20252722749817323492015-03-05T08:28:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.282-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Medieval India</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">This period of Indian history includes the invasion of Muslims ,the establishment of Sultanate of Delhi and Mughal Empire .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Invasions by Muslims</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Muhammad Bin Qasim of Iraq was the first Arab to invade India .Mahmood of Ghazni raided India 17 times from 1001 CE to 1027 CE .He attacked the Somnath temple in the year 1025 He patronised Firdaus ,a persian Poet,who wrote Shanama and Alberuni ,a scholar who wrote Tahqiq -E-Hind .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mohammed Ghori of Afghanistan fought the first battle of Tarain (1191) against Prithviraj Cahuhaan and was defeated .But in the second battle of Tarain (1192),he defeated Prithviraj and captured Delhi ,which led to the foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi ,which marks the beginning of Muslim Rule in India ,</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Delhi Sultanate</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Five dynasties ruled Delhi overa period of more than 300 years .these are as follows .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">1) Ilabari or Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">2)Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">3)Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">4)Saiyyad Dynasty(1414-1451)</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">5)Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526) The founder of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak .(1206-1210)who laid the foundation of the Qutub Minar and built 'Adhai -din -ka Jhopara ' (Ajmer).</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Iltutmish</b> <b>(1210-1286)-</b>formed Chalisa ,a group of 40 Turkish nobles and introduced Silver tanka and Copper Jitat .</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://spiritualityireland.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Sultan_razia-150x150.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://spiritualityireland.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Sultan_razia-150x150.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Razia Sultan </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Raziya Sultan</b> <b>(1236-1239)-</b> was the first and only women ruler .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Balban(1266-86)-</b> was a member of Chalisa ,who introduced Sijah or Paibos practice and started the festival of Nauraj . </span><br />
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<b style="color: #0b5394;">Khilji Dynasty</b><span style="color: #0b5394;"> - The founder of Khilji dynasty ,Jalalluddin Khilji (1290-1296),was killed and succeeded by his nephew Alauddin Khilji .He had a permanent army and introduced market control .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The poet ,muscian and Historean Amir Khusaro served seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate .He invented Sitar and was given a tiltle of Tuti-E-Hind .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Tughlaq Dynasty -(1320-1414)</b></span><br />
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<a href="http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/70/1_Religious_Policy_of_Muhammad_Bin_Tughlaq.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/70/1_Religious_Policy_of_Muhammad_Bin_Tughlaq.jpg" /></a><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325)</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">He was the founder of this dynasty .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Mohammed Bin Tughlaq(1325-1351)-</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">He<b> </b>introduced token coins of brass and copper .He set up department of agriculture Diwan-e-kohi.The famous traveller Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during his period and while here had written Satarnamah . <b>Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">He imposed four new taxes .Kharaj (a land tax) ,Jaziya (a tax by non muslims) .Zakat(tax on property )and Khams(one fifth booty captured wars) .He built the towns of Hissar ,Firozabad and Firozshah Kotla .Barani ,his court historean ,wrote Tarikh-e-Firozshahi and Fatwa-e-Jahandari.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Taimur the Lame,a Mongol leader ,invaded Delhi in December 1398 during the reign of Nasiruddin Mohammad Tughlaq .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Saiyyad Dynasty -(1414-1451)</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Khizr Khan was the founder of Saiyyad Dynasty .Other rulers were Mubarak Shah, Mohammad Shah and Alauddin Alam Shah .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lodhi Dynasty</b> -(1451-1526)- The founder of Lodhi Dynasty was Bahlol Lodhi .(1451-1488).Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517) and Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526)were other rulers .Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the battle of Panipat in 1526 ,which marked the end of Delhi sultanate . Religious movements -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Sufis</b> - The Chistis ,the Suharawadis and the Silsilah of Firdausi were the three major orders of Sufis in India . The relationship between the teacher or Pir and his deciple orMurid was an important aspect of Sufism .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Chisti</b> -This movement was established by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti (Ajmer) .Its other saints were Nizamuddin ,Auliya ,Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehli ,Barni and Amir Khusaro .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Suharrawadi</b> - The famous saints of thsi order were Shaikh Shahabuddin and Hamidud-din-Nagry.It was popular in Punjab and Sindh Region .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Silsilah</b> - This religious movement was established by Firdausi and was popular in Bihar .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Bhakti movement (Fifteenth century )- Ramananda a worshiper of Lord Rama ,was the first the fist Bhakti saint .This movement was propounded by Chitanya Mahaprabhu ,Bhagat Namdeva ,Tukaram,Jayadeva ,Saint Kabirdas ,Sadhana,Ravidas and Sena .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Chitanya Mahaprabhu was a ascetic Hindu Monk and social reformer in sixteenth century in Bengal.A great proponent of loving devotion for God ,Bhaktiyoga ,Chaitanya worshipped Lord Krishna .He popularized the Krishna culture .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Tulsidas ,Surdas ,Meerabai were all contemporary .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The Mughal Empire</b> </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://qph.is.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-48e4c6a831092d0ea2bc8435ea952059?convert_to_webp=true" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://qph.is.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-48e4c6a831092d0ea2bc8435ea952059?convert_to_webp=true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Mughal Empire till Aurangzeb's reign</b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Babar (1526-1530)</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">He Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 and established the Mughal Empire .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in the battle of Khanuwa in 1527.He died in 1530 and was buried in Aram Bagh in Kabul .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">His autobiography Tuzuk-e-Babari was written in Turkish language .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Humayun -(1530-1556)</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">He was defeated by Sher Shah Suri .in the battle of Chausa (1539) and again in the battle of Bilgram (also known as the battle of Kannauj in 1540) and remained exiled from India till 1555.He regained the throne in 1555 but died in 1556.His tomb is the prototype of Tajmahal .His sister Gulbadan wrote Humayun Nama .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span><span style="color: #0b5394;"><b> Akbar The Great -(1556-1605)</b></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.writespirit.net/wp-content/uploads/old-images/akbar.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.writespirit.net/wp-content/uploads/old-images/akbar.gif" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #990000;">Akbar the Great </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Born at Amarkot in 1542,Akbar was coronated at the age of 14 .He was the most famous ruler of all the Mughals .He faught the second battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu and emerged victorious .He defeated the Rajputs led by Rana Pratap in the battle of Haldighati in 1576.He conquered Malwa in 1561 ,Gondwana in 1564 ,and Gujrat in 1573 and built Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikari to commemorate this victory .Akbar constructed the Royal city of Fatehpur Sikari in 1570 which served as the empire's capital from 1571 till 1585 .He introduced the Manshabdari system (under this system the army and beaurocracy were organised in order of rank ).The Zabti system (for land revenue) which is also known as Todar Mal Bandobast and the Dahasala system (a revenue on crops).</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He abolished Jaziya 1564 and formulated a new order Tauhit-e-illahi (Din-e-illahi)or universal religion .He built agra fort and his own tomb at Sikandara (Agra).</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Akbar's court poet Abul Fazal wrote Ain-e-Akbari and Akbarnama .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Jahangir (1605-1627) </b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jahangir executed the fifth Sikh guru ArjunDev ,who helped Khusaro (Jahangir's son,later known as Shah Jahan )in the rebellion against him .He married Mehr-un-Nisa (Nur Jahan) in 1611 .Thomas Roe visited his court ,and he allowed the Brithish to establish factories at Surat .Jahangir Built the Moti Masjid at Agra and his mausoleum at Shahdara(Lahore).He wrote his memoir Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri in Persian Language .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Shah Jahan (1627-1658)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Shah jahan annexed Ahmednagar (1633) and concluded treaties with Bijapur and Golkonda (1636).He was defeated and imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb(1658).He died in 1666.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span><span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Aurangzeb (1658-1707)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Aurangzeb came to power by murdering his three brothers (Dara,Suja and Murad ) and imprisoning his father Shah Jahan .Various rebillions took place during his reign .He reimposed Jaziya and banned Nauraz (singing and dancing in court ).He was Zinda Peer or Darvesh .He built Moti Masjid in Delhi and Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Later Mughal Rulers </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b></span>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghEwxiXF-UWzCkD-7B_dirL98hRIN5BwLq8wO8OkUPpMklqCM1Bm2yGl7ENCaDtnVf9UD8cGOaXl7UGPBJE_JBHjyruwUB5C0vZg-SO3jMx1DUuWJDu6NN0DuFppUVyTvACzqwQ1e5yWM/s1600/peacock+akbar+in+durbar++Akbar_II_in_durbar.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghEwxiXF-UWzCkD-7B_dirL98hRIN5BwLq8wO8OkUPpMklqCM1Bm2yGl7ENCaDtnVf9UD8cGOaXl7UGPBJE_JBHjyruwUB5C0vZg-SO3jMx1DUuWJDu6NN0DuFppUVyTvACzqwQ1e5yWM/s1600/peacock+akbar+in+durbar++Akbar_II_in_durbar.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Emperor Akbar sitting in his Durbar on Peacock Throne </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Aurangzeb successors were weak and incapable rulers ,which led to the fall of the Mughal Empire .Nadir Shah ,a Persian king ,invaded India during the rule of Mohammed Shah and took away the "Peacock Throne" and "Kohinoor Diamond "..Bahadur Shah II (1837-57) was the last Mughal ruler.He was deported to Rangoon after the 1857 revolt . </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Regional Uprisings -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Sikhs</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Guru Angad was the successor of Guru Nanak and he invented the Gurumukhi script .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Guru Ramdas was the founder of Amritsar city .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Guru Arjun dev compiled the Adigranth and built the Swarna Mandir .Aurangzeb executed Guru Teg Bahadur (the ninth guru ) in 1675.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Guru Govind Singh (10th and last guru )organized the Sikhs into a military force and called them Khalsa (1699).Later he was killed by an Afghan .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Marathas</b> </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/02/21/article-2282104-002B773600000258-559_306x351.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/02/21/article-2282104-002B773600000258-559_306x351.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />The Kohinoor Diamond in the Crown of queen of Britain </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Marathas became powerful under the rule of Shivajii .Shivaji was imprisoned by Aurangzeb ,but he managed to managed to escape and was coronated in 1674 at Raigarh .He died in 1680 and was succeeded by his son Sambha ji ,who was executed by Aurangzeb .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Rajaram ,brother of Sambhaji ,became the ruler .After the death of Rajaram ,Shivaji II was declared ruler by his mother Tarabai .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Peshawas - Balaji Vishwanathan became powerful and established the Peshawas as hereditary rulers of the realm .Baji Rao came to the throne and Maratha power reached its zenith .Baji Rao began the system of confideracy and thereby several Maratha families became powerful in different parts of India Gaekwad in Baroda ,Bhosale in Nagpur ,Holkar in Indore,Scindhia in Gwalior and Peshawa in Pune .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> </span></div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-62954953685124012142015-03-05T04:22:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.333-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Modern India</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The history of modern India begins with the ascent of Europeans to the British rule leading to the Independence of India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Portuguese - The portuguese were the first to discover the sea route to India .Vasco da Gama reached Calicut via the cape of good hope on 17 May 1498 .Alfanso de Albuquerque captured Goa.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Dutch - In 1602 ,the Dutch East India company was formed ,and the Dutch set their first factory in Masulipattanam in 1605,followed by more factories in Pulicat ,Surat etc .They were defeated by the British in the battle of Bedera in 1759 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">English - The East India Company was established in 1600 ,and they set up their first factory in Surat in 1608.Later ,they established their trading centre at Bombay ,Calcutta and Madras .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Danish - In 1616 ,the Danish East India company was formed and they established their settlements at Serampur (Bengal).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">French - The French established their factory at Surat in 1664 .They were defeated in Carnatic wars by the British .</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.oocities.org/siliconvalley/screen/3299/history/maps/1860ad.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.oocities.org/siliconvalley/screen/3299/history/maps/1860ad.gif" height="320" width="287" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: #0b5394;">India in 1860 </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>British Conquest of India </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">At the beginning ,the British had to face challenges from the Dutch and French to establish their rule in India .It was Robert Clive who laid the British foundation in India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Carnatic wars</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">There were three Carnatic wars fought between the French and the British .In the first Carnatic war (1745-48),the French were defeated and Madras was restored to the English .In the second Carnatic war (1749-54) ,Arcot was captured by the British .In the third carnatic war(1758-63) ,the French were defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash and British gained the control over South India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Conquest of Bengal</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In 1756 ,Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Watson captured Calcutta .But it was the Battles of Plassey and Buxar that led to the BRitish conquest of Bengal .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Battle of Plassey -(1757)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The British led by Robert Clive ,defeated the ruler of Bengal,Siraj-ud-Daula .This marked the beginning of the "Drain of Wealth"from India to Britain .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Battle of Buxar(1764) -This battle was faught between the British and the triple alliance of NAwab Mir Quasim of Bengal ,Nawab Suja-ud-Daula of Awadh and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam .The alliance was defeated .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Anglo-Mysore wars</b> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>First war (1766-69)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The British allied with Nizam and Marathas fought against Haider Ali (ruler of Mysore) .The war ended in a draw and defencive treaty was concluded .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Second War (1780-84)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Haider allied with Nizam and Marathas and fought against the British .Haider Ali died and Tipu Sultan suceeded him at the throne .The war ended in a draw and Treaty of Mangalore was concluded by Tipu an Lord Mc Cartney .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Third War (1790-92</b>)<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.nasrani.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/dsc8476_tipu_sultan_m.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.nasrani.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/dsc8476_tipu_sultan_m.jpg" height="320" width="250" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Tipu Sultan</span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Tipu Sultan defeated British in 1790 and the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) was signed between Tipu Sultan and Lord Cornwallis .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Fourth War (1799)</b> -Tipu was defeated an killed in the war of 1799 .A major part of Tipu's kingdom was aneexed to British India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Anglo Maratha War</b> -There were three Anglo Maratha wars faught over the period from (1775-1818).All the terretories of Peshawas were annexed by the British and the Bombay Presidency was created .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>British Rule </b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Governer Generals -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Warren Hastings</b> -</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He was the first Governer General of India .He introduced the Regulating Act of 1773 ,therby ending the dual Government of Bengal andalso introduced the Pitt's India Act of 1784.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Warren Hastings also founded the Asiatic society of Bengal with Sir William Jones in 1744.He wrote the introduction of the English Translation of the Gita done by Charles Wilkins .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Cornwallis </b>(1786-93) -He introduced Permanent Revenue Settlement or the Zamindari system in Bengal in 1793 .He also introduced the system of Civil Service in India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Sir John Shore</b> -(1793-98)- </span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He played an important role in the introduction of permanent settlement in 1793.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Wellesly</b> (1798-1805)-</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He introduced the System of Subsidiary Alliance (1798),fought he fouth Mysore war and established the Madras Presidency .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Minto I</b> (1806-1813)-</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Vellore Mutiny (1806) took place during the rule of Lord Minto .He concluded the Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh in 1809 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Hastings (1813-23)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">During Hasting's tenure ,the third Maratha war was faught .He created Bmabay presidency in 1818 .He also introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras Presidency in1820 .</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://teesarakhamba.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/WilliamBentinck.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://teesarakhamba.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/WilliamBentinck.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Lord William Bentink</span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Amherst (1823-28)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">During Amherst's time India ,the first Burmese war(1824-26) was faught and Bharatpur (1826) came under the British Empire .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Willim Bentink (1828-35)-</b> Bentinck brought about he social reforms by prohibition of Sati in 1829 and supression of Thuggee(1829-35) .He introduced English a sthe medium of higher education in 1833 on MAcaulay's recommendation .Charter Act of 1833 was introduced during his time .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Sir Charles etcalf(1835-36)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He abolished all restriction on press .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Auckland(1836-1842) -</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The first Afghan war was faught while lord Auckland was the Governer General .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Ellenborough(1842-44)-</b> The first Sikh war took place (1845-46)during the regime of Lord Allenborough .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Hardinge I (1844-48) -</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Hardinge prohibited female infanticide .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Dalhouse (1848-56) -</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Lord Dalhousie introduced the Charter Act of 1853 and applied the Doctorine of Lapse .He introduced the first railway in India (first train line between Bombay and Thane ).He intoduced the first Telegraph line in India between Calcutta and Agra .and the portal system in 1853.He established the Public Works Department and introduced the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Viceroys of India</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Canning (1858-62)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Lord Canning was the last Governer General and the first Viceroy of India .The Sepoy Mutiny took place during his time and the empire of India was passed on to the crown in 1858 .The Universities of Calcutta ,Bombay and Madras were established in 1857 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Elgin I(1862-63)</b> -When Lord Eligin died in 1862,Sir Napier and Sir Denison carried out his administration duties .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Lawrence(1863-69)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Lord Lawrence established the high courts at Calcutta .Bombay and Madras in 1865 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Mayo (1869-72)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Rajkot college in Kathiyawar and the Mayo college of Ajmer were established by Lord Mayo .He organised the statistical Survey of India .He was assasinated in the office by a convict in the Andamans in 1872.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Northbrook (1872-76)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Prince of Wales visited India during his time in 1875.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Lytton (1876-80)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Lord Lytton organised the Delhi Durbar in 1877 to entitle queen Victoria as Kaisar -e-Hind .He passed the Vernacular Press Act and Arms Act of 1878.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Ripon (1880-84)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The first census of India took place in 1881(254 million) .He introduced local self governance;removed Vernacular Press Act .appointed the educational Commission under Sir William Hunter in 1882 and passed the Ilbert Bill in 1883.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Dufferin(1884-88)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 during the tenure of Lord Dufferin.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Lansdowne(1888-94)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">He appointed the Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan (now between Pakistan and Afghanistan) in 1893.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Elgin II(1894-99)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Chitral expedition took place and the Russo-Afghan Frontier was settled .The great Famine of 1896--97 occured during his period .Two British officers were assasinated by Chapekar Brothers in 1897 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Curzon(1899-1905)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Many things happened during Lord Curzon's tenure which include passing of the Indian </span><span style="color: #0b5394;">university Act 1904,on the recommendations of Thomais Raleigh Commission ;passing the Indian Coinage and paper currency Act 1899;The Ancient Monument Preservation Act 1904. Last but not the least in 1905 ,the Partition of Bengal also took place while Lord Curzon was in the office .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Minto II .(1905-1910)-</b>TheMorley Minto Reform or the Indian Council Act 1909 ,was passed ;it invisaged a seperate electorate for Muslims .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Hardinge II (1910-16)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The partition of Bengal was cancelled in 1911.Delhi was made capital in place of Calcutta in 1912 .The Coronation Durbar of King George (V) and queen Marry took place at Delhi in 1911 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">During the span of these five years ,the August declaration (1917)and the Government of India Act 1919 or Montague-Chelmsford reforms,were declared ,the Rowlett Act 1919 was passed and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13th April 1919.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Reading (1921-26)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The main event that occuered at his time was the cancellation of the Rowlett Act and withdrawl of of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi due to the Chauri Chaura incident on 5 th February 1922 .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Irwin(1926-31)</b>-</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Simon Commission visited India in 1928 and the First Round Table Conference was held in England in 1930.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Wellington(1931-36)-</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Three major events that took place during his time was the Second and Third Round Table Conference being held in 1931 and 1932 .respectively ,and passing of the Government of India Act in 1935.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Linlithgow (1936-43) -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">During his tenure Subhash Chandra Bose formed Forward Block in 1939 and Second World War broke out in 1939.August Offer was made by Linlithgow in 1940and was rejected by the Congress .Gandhiji started Satyagrah .Cripp's Mission 1942 offered Dominian Status to India and Quit India Movement(1942) resolution was passed.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lord Wavell (1944-47) -</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">He organised the Shimla Conference in 1945.The INA trials and the naval mutinies took place in 1946 .and the Interim Government was formed by the Congress in 1946.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b> Lord Mountbatten (March 1947- June 1948) -</b></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;"><br />Lord Mountbatten </span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">He was the first Governer General of Free India .Partition of India was declared by the"June 3 Plan of Mountbatten" on 4 th july 1947 . He was succeeded by C Rajgopalachari as the last Governer General of Free India .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Constitutional developments </b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Regulating Act of 1773 -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">With the passing of this Act ,the dual government of Bengal came to an end .The Governer of Bengal also became the Governer General of British India .The Supremem Court was established in Calcutta .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Pitt's India Act of 1784 -</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">With this Act ,a board of control,constituting six members ,was established to superwise and control India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Charter Act of 1830 -</b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">This Act threw upon Indian trade to all British subjects .But the companiy's monopoly of trade in tea and trade with China was not distributed .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Charter Act of 1833</b> - Free trade was established and compan'y monopoly in tea and trade with China was ended .The Governer General-in-counsil was given the power to make laws for British India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Charter Act of 1853 -</b>Under this Act ,the recruitment to the Indian Civil Service(ICS) began through a competetive examination.Additional members were included in th e Governer General's Council which acted as Legislative Council.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Government of India Act of 1858 -</b> The rule of British crown began in India with the passing of this Act .A post of secretary of states for India was created with a 50 men council to assist him .The Governer General of India was made the viceroy and he was assisted by an executive council .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Indian Council Act of 1861 -</b> Under the Indian Council Act of 1861 ,the portfolio system was introduced in the viceroy's Executive Council .Legislative counsils were established in various provinces such as Madras ,Bombay and Bengal .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Morley -Minto Act or Indian Council Act -1904</b> - Direct elections were introduced to the legislative council .Seperate electorates were introduced were introduced for Muslims .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Government of India Act ,1919 </b>-With the introduction of this Act ,the Dyarchy system was introduced in the provinces .Provincial subjects were divided into 'reserved subjects' (such as police ,jails,revenue,and irrigation were to be administered by the Governer and the executive council ) and transport subjects (such as education ,local,self government and public health were to be looked afer by the governer and his ministers).</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Central ligislature was made bi-cameral.The High Commissioner of India was appointed in London .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Government of India Act 1935 </b>-This Act made the provision for the establishment of "All Indian Federation 'consisting of British Provinces and Princely states .Provincial autonomy was introduced and Provincial Legislatures were made bi cameral in six provinces (Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Assam) .Seperate electorates were extended to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian - Christians and Anglo Indians .A federal court was established at Delhi in 1937.</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-46665414807452642682015-03-05T01:56:00.001-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.325-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: #990000;"><span style="text-align: left;">Indian Freedom Struggle and </span>Socio-cultural Reforms </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Indian Freedom Struggle</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Several incidences in Indian history can be seen where people rioted against the inhumanity caused by British government .The most important one was the revolt of 1857.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Revolt of 1857 -(The Indian Mutiny of 1857)</b></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: #0b5394;">Mangal Pandey</span> </b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Mutiny of 1857 ,which began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut ,soon bacame widespread and posed a grave challenge to the British rule .Even though the British were successful in crushing it within an year ,it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers ,the masses and the militia participated so enthusiastically that it came to be regarded as the First War of Indian Independence .,which is also famously known as Sepoy Mutiny .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Causes of the revolt of 1857</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">There were many causes behind the revolt of 1857 .Through the Doctrine of Lapse many states were annexed to the British and titles and pensions of royals were suspended .Sepoys were mistreated and discriminated in terms of payment and promotions .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Levying of heavy taxes ,eviction and destruction of handicrafts industry due to one way free trade policy of the British caused dissatisfction among the Indians .But the most immediate cause for the mutiny was the introduction of the new Enfield rifle with geased cartridges (supposedly having acoating made up of fat of cow and pigs .Mangal Pandey ,a resident of Ballia district in Uttar Pradesh, was a soldier in the British Indian Army .He refused to use the greaced cartridges and broke into open mutiny at Barrakpoer near Calcutta .He had planned to join his comrades during mutiny .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>The leaders of the revolt -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The revolution in Delhi was led by the leadership of Bhadur Shah II and General Bakht Khan.It was Ruthelessly supressed by John Nicolson and Lt Hudson .In Kanpur the leader of the revolts were Nana Sahib,Rao Sahib and Tantia Tope .Here Campbell and Havelock supressed the Revolt .Begum of Awadh (Hazrat Mahal)and Ahmadullah led the revolt in Lucknow and were supressed by Campbell and Havelock .Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi was defeated by Hugh Rose .The revolt was completely supressed by the end of 1858.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Other National movements are -</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Indigo Revolt of Bengal (1859-60)-</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The peasants of Bengal were forced to grow Indigo plants by the Europeans .Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas played prominent roles in the resistance against the planters .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Indian Natioanl Congress -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">The Indian National Congress was Formed by A O Hume ,an English retired civil servant ,in 1855,witha purpose to provide "a safety valve"to the growing discontent of the educated Indians .The first session of the INC was held in Bombay under the presidentship of W C Banerjee .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Swadeshi Movement (1905) -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">In the Benaras session of INC in 1905,which was chaired by the president G K Gokhale ,the first call for Swadeshi Movement was made .Lala Lajpat Rai ,Bal Gangadhar Tilak,Bipin Chandr Pal and Aurbindo Ghosh played an important role here .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Swaraj (1906)</b> -The INC under Dada bhai Nairoji called for Swaraj (self govt)in December 1906 at Calcutta session .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Ghadar Party -</b> Was formed by Lala Hardayaal ,Soha Sing Bhakkna and Tarakhnath Das .Its headquarter was in San Francisco .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Home Rule Movement -(1916)</b> - This movement was started by B G Tilak and Annie Besant with the objective of self government for India in British Empire .During this movement Tilak gave the slogan 'Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it '.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lucknow Pact (1916)</b>-This pact was signed by INC and ML (Muslim League) .Both demanded dominion status for India .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)</b> - On 13 the April 1919 ,General O'Dyer fired at the people who were assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh ,Amritsar over protest against the arrest of the local leaders .The hunter commission was appointed to inquire into it .Sardar Udham Singh killed O'Dyer on 13 March 1940 at London . </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Khilafat Movement - (1920) </b></span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Muhammed Ali and Saukat Ali started the movement in protest against the mistreatment of the British on Turkey .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Non-Cooperation Movement </b>-(1921-1922) The INC ,in Calcutta session ,passed the resolution in September 1920 to start the non cooperation movemnet .The movement started in January 1921 .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Moplah Rebillion (1921)</b>- The Muslim Moplah peasants of Malabar (Kerela) rebelled against the Hindu Zamindars and the British government .As many as 2337 rebels were killed and many were injured .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Chauri Chaura incidence (1922)</b>-The congress decided to launch the civil disobedience movement at the Allahabad Session in December 1921 ,but a mob attacked the police and burnt 22 policemen at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur ) on 5 February .Gandhi ji withdrew non -cooperation momvement on 12 feb 1922 after this incidence .</span><br />
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Swaraj Party-(1923)</b>- Moti Lal Nehru,C R Das and N C Kelkar formed the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923 .The Party dissolved in 1926 with the death of C R Das .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Simon Commission (1927)</b> - The Indian leaders opposed the Simon Commission ,which came to India in order to introduce futher reforms and extensions of parliamentry democracy .While protesting against the commission ,Lala Lajpat Rai died in a Lathi Charge at Lahore .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Bardoli Movement(1928) -</b> The Bardoli movement was a 'no revenue' campgain by the Bardoli (a district in Gujrat) peasants under the leadership of sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Lahore Session (1929)</b> - Under the Presidentship of J Nehru,Inc declared Purna Swaraj .The newly adapted tricolour flaf was unfurled on 31 December 1929 ,and 26 January 1930 was fixed as the first Independence day to be celebrated every year.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Dandi March (1930)</b>-On 12 March 1930,Gandhi ji started his march fromSabarmati Ashram to Dandi to break the salt Law imposed bythe British .On 6 April 1930 ,he picked a handful of salt and started the civil disobedience movement .When he was arrested ,Sarojini Naidu led the movement .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>First Round table conference (1930)</b>-It was held on 12 November 1930 in London to disscuss the Simon commission report .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Gandhi Erwin Pact (1931) </b>- A pact was signed between Gandhi ji and the Governor General lord Irwin in March 1931 .As a result the congress withdrew the civil disobedience movement and the government ,on its part ,released political prisoners and permitted the people to make salt for the persons residing within the certain distance of the sea coast .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Second Round Table conference (1931)</b> -THe second round table conference was held on 12 november 1930 in London to discuss the Simon Commission Report .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Poona Pact (1932)</b>-According to this pact ,the seats reserved for the depressed classes in the provincial legislatue was increased .The Third Round Table conference was held in 1932,which did not bring about any result .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Government of India Act 1935</b> -Thsi act was passed based on SimonCommission report.A federal type of government was introduced .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Quit India movement (1942)</b>-On 8 August 1942 ,the resolution of quit India movement was passed in Bombay.Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and gave slogan 'Do or Die 'to his countrymen . </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">I<b>ndian National Army(INA)</b> .In 1942 Subhash Chandra Bose formed Azad Hind Fauz in Singapoer and gave the call "Dilli chalo".INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi Ji ,Azad and Nehru and one women force named after Rani Jhansi .Its headquarters were at two places .Singapore and Rangoon. </span><br />
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<b style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #660000;">Socio cultural Reforms -</span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Raja Ram Mohan Roy</b> - founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1885.He opposed Sati Pratha,casteism and advocated widow remarriage .He is regarded as the Father of Indian Renaissance due to his efforts to protect Hinduism and Indian's rights by participating in English government .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Keshab Chandra</b> -He started Sangat Sabha and Prarthana Samaj.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>M G Ranade</b>-He founded the Prarthana Sabha .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Swami Dayanand</b> -He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Swami Vivekanand </b>(1863-1902)- He founded the Ramkrishna Mission in 1897.He attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893 and gave an influential speech addressing the crowd "Sisters and Brothers of America ...".He introduced Hinduism there .He indroduced Indian Philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western World.</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> Raja Ram Mohan Roy</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Henry Louis Vivian Derozio</b>-</span><span style="color: #0b5394;">The Young Bengal Movement was propagated by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio .He was a lecturer at the Hindu college of Calcutta.Though he was of Portugal origin but he had a great spirit of patriotism for his native land Bengal .In his poem native land he wrote </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">“My Country! In the days of Glory Past </span><br style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">A beauteous halo circled round thy brow </span><br style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">And worshiped as deity thou wast, </span><br style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;">Where is that Glory, where is that reverence now?” </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Jyotiba Phule - </span><span style="color: #0b5394;">Satya Sodhak Samaj was founded Swami Vivekanand by Jyotiba Phule in 1873.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Madam H P Blavatsky-</b> She began the movement of Theosophical Society in the United States in 1875.In India it was popularized by Annie Besant (who was also the president of this society in 1907 ),and she founded the Central Hindu College in 1898.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>India After Independence -</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;">Pt Nehru became the first prime minister of India .On 30 January 1984,Gandhi ji was assasinated by Nathuram Vinayak Godse .On 26 January 1950 ,India became a republic and Dr Rajendra Prasad became the first president and Dr S Radha Krishnan the first Vice President of India.</span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-77865188342408873692015-03-04T01:51:00.000-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.368-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Beauty of character </b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dharma eva hato hanti,dharmo rakshati rakshitah</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Thasmath dharmo na hantavyo ma na dharmo hato vageeth</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dharma, when destroyed ,destroys.Dharma protects when it is protected .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Therefore Dharma must not be violated ,otherwise violated dharma destroys us .</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: left;">The people of ancient India were very strong of character .For them the Dharma "righteous path"was more important than their lives .In Mahanarayana Upnishad it is said </span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.3999996185303px; text-align: left;">:</span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dharmo vishwasya jagatah pratishtaa </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">loke dharmishtam praja upasarpanthi .</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">dharmena papamapanudanti </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">dharme sarvam pratisthitam</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">tasmath dharmam paramam vadanti </span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dharma contitues the foundation of all affairs in the world,People respect one who adheres to Dharma.Dharma destroys bad and sinful acts .Everything in this world is founded on Dharma .Therefore dharma is considered supreme and eternal .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A right person was intended to inflict a war only when the "Dharma" was violated .Even during wars they obeyed the rules of war that was made on the cradle of Dharma only.According to Manu "Dharma according to Manu is that "which is followed by the learned (and) good, by those ever free from spite and passions, (and) which is acknowledged by the mind" and consists of "The Veda, tradition, good custom, and (what is) pleasing to one's self."People worked just thinking that their duty was above anything .Even in the Gita it has been written that we should just rely on our Karma without expecting its fruitful result .(Karmanevadhikaraste ma phaleshu kadachan). At that time there existed two sets of rules: </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(a) Rules of customary law, that deal with rights and duties, right and wrong,though the emphasis was on duties and obligations. What was practised was dharma.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(b) The law of the divine wisdom. The Vedic Aryans believed that the soul is immortal and the body, its abode, is mortal and perishable. According to them the soul of a being enjoys or suffers in the next birth according to the good and bad karma (action) done in this world. Yajna (any Hindu ritual in which fire is the eternal deity) was the way of attaining salvation.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Will Durant (1885-1981) an American Historian has said :</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"It is true that even across the Himalayan barrier India has sent to us such questionable gifts as grammar and logic, philosophy and fables, hypnotism and chess, and above all our numerals and our decimal system. But these are not the essence of her spirit; they are trifles compared to what we may learn from her in the future."</span></span></span><br />
<b style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"Perhaps in return for conquest, arrogance and spoliation, India will teach us the tolerance and gentleness of the mature mind, the quiet content of the unacquisitive soul, the calm of the understanding spirit, and a unifying, a pacifying love for all living things."</span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">(source: </span><b style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?srefer=&isbn=0964237709" target="_blank">Philosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction</a> - By T. C. Galav </b><span style="background-color: white;">Universal Science-Religion. p 20).</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></b><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">In his book, </span><b style="background-color: white;">The Case for India he has said:</b></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"India was the motherland of our race, and <b>Sanskrit</b> the mother of Europe's languages: she was the mother of our philosophy; mother, through the Arabs, of much of our mathematics; mother, through the Buddha, of the ideals embodied in Christianity; mother, through the village community, of self-government and democracy. <b>Mother India is in many ways the mother of us all." </b> Nothing should more deeply shame the modern student than the recency and inadequacy of his acquaintance with India....This is the India that patient scholarship is now opening up like a new intellectual continent to that Western mind which only yesterday thought civilization an exclusive Western thing."</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">"As flowing rivers disappear in the sea, losing their name and form, thus a wise man, freed from name and form, goes to the divine person who is beyond all." Such a theory of life and death will not please Western man, whose religion is as permeated with individualism as are his political and economic institutions. But it has satisfied the philosophical Hindu mind with astonishing continuity.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">All the above statements ,if you are capable of grasping ,shows that in this infinite universe Indians knew what was really a thing to achieve that could expand an identity from a state of this destructible body to spread over the maximum space in this infinite universe .The things for which people fight in this world ,is really negligible in comparison to that great thing ,which a people can attain after knowing this supreme knowledge of Ancient Hindu Dharma .It gives everything to you that very knowledge ,that makes you feel that you have found everything ,and whatever you are seeing in everyday life is just happening under that superior "realistic Life" .</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">My father used to say to me that in this universe no such thing is impossible that you can ever think .Because this universe is full of combinations of energies that have unlimited possibilities of uniting .I really bow in feet of my father ,my best teacher who has led my mind being enlightenend by this beautiful abyssal knowledge of "the eternal Brahma" .</span></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">That country which was versed with the beautiful people who had beautiful character ,where the humanity was at the top of all social laws and which was the ultimate centre of divinity in the whole world ...would it not be the Most Beautiful India !! You can feel it only when you have reached at a higher state of knowledge which naturally occurs in everyone but hidden by various worldy desires .</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">As lord Krishna has stated in the Gita " As a covered by smoke ,mirror by dirt and embryo by the amnion ,so is knowledge covered by desire.Knowledge stands covered by this eternal enemy of the wise ,which is insatiale like fire.The senses ,the mind and the intellect are declared to be its seat ,screening the light of truth through these ,it deludes the embodied soul.Therefore ,Arjun ,you must first control your senses and then kill this evil thing which obstructs gyana (knowledge) and vigyana(science) </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">So if somebody really wants to get acquainted with the beauty of India ,he/she must try to feel it .</span></span><br />
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versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635765413915694371.post-78200381580550382072015-02-23T08:12:00.005-08:002015-03-14T05:09:18.371-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Standard of life </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0b5394;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Though with time the reality of standard of life has changed .In current time people are known to live a standard life only when they possess enough money to live a luxurious life .But the reality was different in the past.On the top of society there was a space for the learned scholars who were the founders of the civilization .Their works decided the pathway of social progress.All the aspects of life like health,safety, education etc were analyzed by them and they gave their best effort for the betterment of society.Such people made the peer of society.They were so dedicated people for whom luxury meant nothing .The great sages lived in the vicinity of nature because nature was thought to be the best habitat in the viewponit of physical,mental and spiritual growth.They lived an austere life not to give pain to them but to learn toleracy which was helpful for them in adverse conditions of life .The king ,though lived a spectacular life but it was all a splurge ,since childhood they had been taught to live with austerity in the "Gurukul".So when they complete their apprenticeship they come back to rule the kindom .Thier lives were dedicated to the counrty,the citizens and towards God.It was not less than a sacrifice. In the Gita lord Krishna says that a person can become perfect only when he has looked for all moderate activities because it needs be self restraint.One who adheres to moderate path is the "Yogi" and so he is preeminent therefore o Arjun try to be a Yogi (tasmaad yogi bhavarjunah) .</span></span></div>
versha sethhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08999021329566367640noreply@blogger.com0