History of India
Indus Valley Civilization was first thought to be the oldest civilization in India but now you can see that there are many evidences to prove that Vedic civilization originated in India and predates Harappan culture .The Aryan invasion theory is now refuted by many historians .
Though till now it was thaught everywhere that Aryans came in India from other european countries in 1500 BC but many archeological evidences show that this is not a true fact .Even at the time this when this theroy was proposed at that time many historian doubted this becaus ethey never found a solid evidence for this .Even there were speculations about the right chronological description to the Historians .
Max Muller, the principal architect of the Aryan Invasion theory, admitted the purely speculative nature of his Vedic chronology, and in his last work published shortly before his death, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, he wrote: "Whatever may be the date of the Vedic hymns, whether 15 hundred or 15,000 B.C.E., they have their own unique place and stand by themselves in the literature of the world."
Archaeologist James Shaffer in 1993 refuted Aryan invasion theory .Till now there have no evidence of Aryan's dwelling outside India in the Vedas and archeologically no evidence for foreign intrusion has been found .Even no other sources talk about any linguistic ,cultural or genetic evidences .
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The dried up Sarasvati River basin |
In Rig Vedea there is refrence of the mighty Saraswati river more than fifty times .High resolution satellite images have verified descriptions in The Rig Veda of the descent of the ancient Sarasvati River from it's source in the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea.See the image where blue line is depicted for Indus river and Saraswati river system is in green .It proves the drying up of the Sarasvati River was subsequent to the origin of the Rig Veda and this verifies Rigveda originated around 300 B.C.E prior to the drying of Saraswati River bed around 1900 B.C.E .You will be surprized to know that these two dates are according to the dates enunciated by Rigveda itself .The drying up of the Sarasvati River around 1900 B.C.E. is confirmed archaeologically. There are more than 2,500 Archaeological sites, two-thirds of which are along the recently discovered dried up Sarasvati River bed.
Some of the evidences are -
If Harappan Culture was earlier culture than Vedas ,how could the symbols mentioned throughout the vedas like the divine word Om ,the auspicious sign of Swastika and the leaf of the holy Banyan tree , are found in the Harappan seals ?
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The Shiv lingas from Harappa |
This piece of pottery from the lowest level of Harappan excavations with pre-harappan writing is deciphered as ila vartate vara,referring to the sacred land bounded by the Sarasvati River, described in the Rig Veda.
The three stone Siva Lingas found in Harappa by M. S. Vats in 1940. The worship of the Siva Linga is mentioned in the Maha Narayana Upanisad of the Yajur Veda and is still ardently practiced today.
The ancient port city of Lord Krishna as described in Mahabharat and other Vedic literature in Dwarka excavated in the Arab ocean .In Mahabharat's Mausala Parva in a Sanskrit verse the inundation of Dwarka in Sea is mentioned as
niryate tu jane tasmin sagaro makaralayah
dwarkan ratnasampurnan jalenplavayattada
(Mahabharat ,Mausali Parva,7,verse 40)
Iron arrows and spear heads excavated from Kurukshetra has been chronologically dated as 2,800 B.C.E by thermoluminence process .It is the actual date of war given within the Mahabharat itself .
The three cities Paniprastha, Sonaprastha & Indraprastha ,that were given to the Pandavas in Mahabharat ,excavations also support the antiquities found from these sites ancient subsequent to Mahabharat .
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The remains attesting the port city of Dwarka. |
niryate tu jane tasmin sagaro makaralayah
dwarkan ratnasampurnan jalenplavayattada
(Mahabharat ,Mausali Parva,7,verse 40)
Iron arrows and spear heads excavated from Kurukshetra has been chronologically dated as 2,800 B.C.E by thermoluminence process .It is the actual date of war given within the Mahabharat itself .
The three cities Paniprastha, Sonaprastha & Indraprastha ,that were given to the Pandavas in Mahabharat ,excavations also support the antiquities found from these sites ancient subsequent to Mahabharat .
Vedic Civilization (4000-10,000 BC) -
The Early Vedic Period -
-> Aryans were distributed throughout the eastern Afghanistan,Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh called the land of seven rivers .They lived in the families that was termed kulas headed by the kulpas or grihpatis and in villages or gram headed by grammi.
-> Sabha the counciil of tribal leaders and Samiti a general assembly of tribes ,exerciesed deliberative or military power .
-> Women held a respectable social status and participated in relegious ceremonies and tribal assemblies.
During this period ,the four Vedas were composed .Rigved , Samveda , Yajurvveda and Atharvaveda .Rigveda is considered to be the oldest relegious text in the world ,which consists of 1028 hymns (suktas),the prayers to God and also the Gayatri mantra (Address to the Sun) .Samveda is derived from the root Saman ,Which deals with music.Yajurveda deals with the procedure for performance of sacrifices .It has two main texts named : the White Yajurveda (consists of mantras) and the Black Yajurveda (consists of commentry in prose ).Atharvaveda deals with medicines .
-> The Upnishads are the main sources of philosophy .There are about 108 Upnishads .They condemn ceremonies and sacrifices .
-> The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox manner and deals with the socio economic and polotical life of Aryans and their beliefs .
->The Aryanakas ,known as forest books ,was meant for the hermits who lived in forest .These manuscript dealt with mysticism and philosophy ,opposed sacrifice and emphasised on meditation .
->In Vedas nature worship is preffered .People at that time did not believe in Idol worship .They worshipped in open through yajnas .
The Later Vedic Period
->This age is also known as the epic age because the two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were written during this period .
->Various states are known since this time such as Kosala ,Videha ,Kuru,Magadh,Kaushambi ,Kashi,Avanti,Panchala ,Ayodhya ,Mathura etc .Till then the society has been reconstructed on the basis of four fold caste system .Position of the King grew considerably.The Kings performed sacrifices such as Rajsuya (Royal consecration) ,Vajapeya (including a chariot race) and for supreme dominance over the kings ,the Aswamedha yajna (horse sacrifice ).
-> The caste system divided people as Brahmins,Kshatriyas,Vaishyas and Shudras .Brahmins were priests and teachers.The Kshatriyas were rulers and soldiers .They together made the peers of society .The vaishyas were traders ,artisans and farmers .And the shudras were the uneducated people who served the other three classes .
->Agriculture became the dominant economic activity .Internal and foreign trade flourished .The diet of the people included rice ,wheat ,barley milk and milk products ,vegetables and fruits.Fish and flesh of oxen,sheep and goats were also included .
->People worshipped God .Main two diety wereLord Vishnu and Pashupati (Lord Shiva).
->There were six Vedangas ,namely Shiksha (deals with pronunciation) ,Kalpa (deals with rituals) ,Vyakarana(deals with grammer ), Chhanda (dealt with metre) , Nirukta (dealt with etymology) and Jjyotisha (dealt with Astronomy).
->There were six schools of Indian philosophy called Shad Darshan .
->There were also four upvedas :Dhanurveda (of Yajurveda dealt with the art of warfare),Gandharvaveda (of Samaveda dealt with art and music),Shilpaveda (of Atharvaveda dealt with architecture) and Ayurveda(of Rigveda dealt with the medicines .
Indus Valley Civilasation (2500-1500 BC) -
->This civilization extended from Manda (Jammu and Kashmir)in the north to Daimabad (Maharashtra ) in the south and from Sutkagan Dor (Palkistan-Iran border )in the west to Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)in the east .
->The major citiies of this civilization were Mohenjo-daro in Sindh ,Harappa in West Punjab,Chanhu-daro in Sindh ,Kalibangan in Northern Rajesthan ,Lothal in Gujrat,Banawali in Haryana and Surkatada in Gujrat .
->The Indus Valley Civilization had a very systematic town planning on the lines of grid system.The houses were made of bricks.There were no stone buildings and there was a proper drainage system .
->Major crops grown here were wheat ,barley,rice,dates mustard sesamum and cotton (first in the world) and grains were stored in the grainaries .
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Indus Valley Civilization |
->There existed inter regional trade and forign trades with Mesopotamia ,Bahrain etc .Barter system was used to exchange materials .The unit of measurement was 16 (16,32,64,160,320,etc).
->People used to worhip God .Main deities were mother godess symbolizing fertility and Protoshiva (Pashupatinath).They also worshipped Banyan tree ,animals and birds.
->Their script is not deciphered satisfactorily and there is no conclusive proof of the connection with the Dravidian languages or even with Sanskrit .
->Causes of decline of this civilization was recurring floods,drying up of rivers ,ignoring defence etc.
As the Brahmins monopolized over the society ,other castes started revolting against them,which resulted into the rise of several schools of thought.
The movement was spearheaded by Kshtriyas of the royal family Magadha,which helped in propagation of Buddhism and Jainism .
Buddhism -
Gautam Siddharth ,a Saka prince , was the founder of Buddhism.He was born in 563 BCE on Vaishakha Purnima day at Lumbini nea Kapilvastu in Nepal .His father Suddhodhana was a Saka ruler and Mahamaya,who died after seven days of his birth .He was brought up by his step-mother Gautami.At the age of 16 ,he was married to Yashodhara ,a cousin of the same age ,and had a son named Rahula.When he was 29,he left the palace in search of truth (renunciation).He attained enlightenment at the age of 35 at Gaya in Magadha ,under a Banyan tree .He delivered the first sermon at Sarnath(Varanasi) and attained Mahaparinirvana(death) at Kusinagar (Gorakhpur Distt)in 483 BCEat the age of 80.
Doctrine of Buddhism -
Some of the fundamentals of the teachings of Gautam Buddha are as follows:
The four Noble Truths :
1-Suffering is an inherent part of existence.
2- The origin of suffering is ignorance.
3-The symptoms of that ignorance are attachments and craving and
4-Attachment and craving can be ceased by following an eight fold path .which will lead to the cessation of attachment and craving.
->The noble eight fold path is the right understanding ,right thought,right speech,right action ,right livlihood,right effort,right mildfullness and right concentration .
->Nirvana is the state of being free from both suffering and the cycle of rebirth by following the eight fold path .
->Buddhism believes in Nonviolence ,Law of Karma and existence of God .
->Laws of Buddhism is scriptedin Pali language.
->Vinaya Pitaka deals with the rules of disciplines in Buddhist monastries.
->Sutta Pitaka is the largest treatise and deals with the collection of Buddha's sermons.
->Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with the explainations of the philosophical principles of Buddhist religion.
->Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other buddhist texts ,which provide information about the then Sri Lanka andits people.
->Jataks are also the Buddhist texts that include fables about the different births of Buddha .
Jainism -
Jainism was propagated by non-Brahmins .It was founded by Rishabh Dev ,the father of king Bharat .It became a major religion under Vardhman Mahaveer.
The first Tirthankara (Prophet or Guru ) was Rishabhnath (emblem:bull) and teh 23 rd was Parshwanath (emblem : snake) whereas the 24th was Mahaveer (emblem : Lion) .The main teachings of Parshwanath were non-injury ,non-lying ,non stealing ,non-possesssion .Mahaveer adopted one more with all these which was Brahmacharya (celibacy).
Mahaveer was born to King Siddhartha and queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12th April according to Gregarian calender .He was married to Yashoda and had a daughter ,whose husband became his first deciple .At the age of 30 Mahaveer renounced his home ,gave up his worldly possessions and spent 12 years as an ascetic .He attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya at the age of 42 on th 10 th day of Vaishakh ,outside the town of Jrinbhikgrama .Then onwards ,he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and his followers were known as Jains He attained Nirvana at the age of 72 years ,four and a half months at Pawapuri near Patna on the last day of the Indian and Jain Calenders ,Diwali in 527 BCE .
Doctrine of Jainism -
Jainism believed in the following principles -
Rejected the authorities of the Vedas .
Rejected the existance og the God .
Discarded the sacrifice and the rituals .
Attainment of salvation by believing in penanc and dying of starvation.
Universal brotherhood .
Belief in ahimsa in word,thought an action towards all living beings
Some of the fundamental teachings of Mahaveer are -
To liberate oneself one should rely on right faith (samyak-darshan) ,right knowledge (samyak gyan) and right conduct (samyak -charitra).
At the heart of right conduct (for jains )lie the five great vows -
1-Non violence (Ahimsa)- to cause no harm to any living being.
2-Truthfullness (Satya) - the speak the harmless truth only .
3-Non stealing (Asteya) - to take nothing not given properly .
4-Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge in no sensual pleasure .
5-Non possession/non attachment (Aparigraha) -To detach completely from people, places and material things .
The teachings of jainism were compiled in 14 books called Puranas ,later these were converted into 12 books called angas ,written in Andhra Magadhi and Prakrit dialects .
Jains were divided into two groups in the first Jain council held in Patliputra (modern Patna) - Digambara who remained unclad and Shwetambaraa who wear white clothes .
Magadha Empire -
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanpadas or regions in ancient India .The core of the kingdom was located in the area of Bihar of south of the ganges .Its first capital was Rajgriha (modern Rajgeer)then Patliputra (modern Patna).
Haryanka Dynasty (684-413 BCE)
Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty .HE expanded the Magadha kingdom by conquering Agra (east Bihar ) and entering into matrimonial relation with Kosala ,Vaishali and Madra .His capital was Girivraja (Rajgir).
Ajaatshatru (492-460 BCE)
Ajaatshatru imprisoned and killed his father Bimbisara.Under his rule ,the dynasty reached at its peak .He extended the Magadha empire by annexing the Lichchavi kingdom .Buddha died during his reign .He arranged the first Buddhist council at Rajgrih in 483 BCE under the chairmanship of Mahakassapa in which Bodh education was scripted in two books named Sutapatika and Vinayapatika .
Udayabhadra
Mahavamsa says that Udaybhadra eventually succeeded his father ,Ajatashatru,moving the capital of Magadha kingdom to Pataliputra ,which under the later Mauryan dynasty would become the largest city in the world .He has believed to have ruled for sixteen years .
Shishunga Dynasty rulers
The rulers of shishunga dynasty included the following :
Kakavarna (394-364 BCE) succeeded his father Shishunga . Kshemadharmam (618-582 BCE), Kshatrayujas (582-55 8BCE) and Kalasoka ,who has arranged the second buddhist council at Vaishali in 383 BCE under Sabakami .
Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BCE) -
Nanda dynasty was found by Mahapadam Nanda .It was the first non Khastriya dynasty .Mahapadamnanda added Kalinga to his empire .Dhana Nanda ,the eighth son of the founder and the last Nanda ruler was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya .Alexander invaded India during this period .
Foreign invasions -
Cyrus of Persia was the first foreign conqueror to invade India .
Darius I (522-486 BCE) the great grandson of Cyrus ,annexed Indus Valley in 518 BCE .Darius III enlisted the Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander .The control of Persia became weak on the eve of Alexander's invasion .
Alexander (356-323) ,a Greek ,ascended the throne of Macedoniaafter the death of his father Philips in 334 BCE .By 329 BCE he annexed Persia upto Afghanistan.He crossed the Hindukush mountains on May 326 BCE and invaded India.At that time north-west India was ruled by small independent states such as Taxila ,Punjab(by King of Porus) and Gandharas .
In the battle of Hedaspes (326 BCE) ,Alexander crossed the Hydaspes (Jhelum river) and took porous by surprize .Only Porous put up a tough fight against Alexander ,and other kings submitted meekly.Alexander moved towards the river Beas with a will of annexing Magadha ,but his soldiers refused to cross the river .Failing to persuade the soldiers ,he ordered his soldiers to retreat .The retreat began on October 326 BCE .After reaching Babylon (Baghdad) Alexander fell seriously ill and died on June 323 BCE merely at the age of 33.
Maurya Dynasty -(322-185 BCE) -
The Maurya empire ,was founded by Chandra Gupta Maurya.It marked a new epoch in the hitory of India .It was a period when politics ,art ,trade and commerce eleveated India to a glorious height .It originates from Kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (modern Bihar,eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal )in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent .The empire had its capital city at Patliputra (modern Patna) .
Chandragupta Maurya -(322-298 BCE) -
Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dyansty overthrowing the last Nand king Dhana Nanda .He established Maurya empire in 321 BCE with the help of Chanakya also known as Vishnugupta and Kautilya , whom he assigned as his teacher .He expanded his empire not only to most of the Indian subcontinent but also pushed its boundaries upto Persia and Central Asia conquering the Gandhara region .He faught a long battle with Seleucus Nicator (a general of Alexander ,who acquired the throne of babylon after the death of Alexander ) and with the treaty of 303 BCE ,he won the battle in trans Indus region .During his reign ,Megasthenes (a Greek Ambassador) was sent by Seleucus to his court .Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from throne for his son Bindusara .
Bindusara - (320 - 272 BCE )
Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor after Chandragupta Maurya .During his reign the empire extended Southwards upto Mysore .He had two sons Susima and Ashoka ,who were the viceroys of Taxila and Ujjain respectively .
The Greeks called Bindusara as Amitrochates or Allitrochades (derived from the Sanskrit word Amitraghat that means the slayer of enemies ).He was also called Ajathashetru (which means man having no enemies )in Sanskrit .He conquered 16 states and extended the empire from sea to sea .The empire included whole of India except Kalinga (modern Odisha) and the Dravidian kingdoms of South .Deimachus ,the greek ambassador ,visited his court .
Ashoka the Great (304-332 BCE)
Ashoka was crowned in 268 BCE ,four years after the death of his father Bindusara .Ashoka ruled almost over entire Indian subcontinent .His empire was stretched from Present day Pakistan ,Afghanistan in the west to the present day of Bengladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east and as far south in the Brahmagiri in Krnataka and peninsular part of Southern India .
Ashoka conquered Kalinga in 261 BCE .He embraced buddhism after witnessingthe mass deaths of the war of Kalinga ,which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest .He was later apponted as Dharma Mahapatra to propagate Buddhism across Asia and established monuments ,marking several significant sites in the life of Gautam Buddha .He also sent missionaries to Ceylon(modern Srilanka),Burma and ahead .His mission was propagated by his son Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra .
Ashoka's inscriptions were written in Brahmi ,Kharoshthi ,Aramaic and Greek languages .The emblem of India (Lion) has been adopted from the Ashokan pillar at Saarnath .
Brihadratha - The last Mauryan king ,who was assasinated during a military parade by the commander-in-chief of his guard ,the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE .He started Shunga Dynasty in Magadha .
Kingdoms after the Mauryan Empire
In North west India ,the Maurya empire was succeeded by by some dynasties of Central Asia .
The Indo Greeks : The Greeks were first to invade India ,who were also known as "Bactrain Greeks" (who ruled over Bactria ).The most famous IndoGreek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE) also Known as Milinda .
The Shakas or Scythians (A branch of Iranian Shakas ) - The Greeks were followed by Shakas .Vikramaditya ,the King of Ujjain ,defeated Shakas in 57 BCE and with this victory commence the era of Vikram Samvat .
The Parthians - They invaded India at the begining of the Christian era .Gondophares was their famous king .during whose rule St. Thaomas visited India to propagate Christianity .
Sunga Dynasty (184-75 BCE) - The founder was Pushyamitra Shunga .He was succeeded by his son Agnimitra (central character of KAlidasa's Malvikagnimitra).There were 10 Shunga rulers .It was a period of revival of Bhagwatism .Patanjali's Mahabhashya and yogasutra were composed during thsi period .The last ruler of this dynasty was Devabhuti (rule from 83-73BCE).
Kanva Dynasty (75-30BCE)- The founder of this dynasty was Vasudeva .This dynasty was followed by Satvahanas .
Kushaan Empire -(1-3 century ) -The Empire was created by the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi confederation .Kanishka was their most famous king .He started the saka era in 78 CE.He patronized Buddhism and held the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir .
In eastern ,Central and Deccan India the Mauryans were succeeded by dynasties such as Shungas,Kanvas and Satavahanas .
Saatvahana Dyansty (60BCE - 250CE) - Simukha was the founder of this dynasty .The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra shatkarni . They rule in deccan and central India .
Southern Kingdoms -(Sangam Period)
The history of the southern kindom can be learnt fom Sangam literature .Sangam wa sthe assembly of Tamil poets held under the royal patronage .
The Pandyas - Their capital was located at Madurai .They had trade links with Roman empire .
The Cholas - Kaveripattinam was their capital .The Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka .They also maintained a nnavy.
The Cheras - Vanaji was their capital .The famous ruler of this dynasty was Senguttuvan .who was also known as Red Chera .
Gupta dyansty (320-550 CE)
Founded by maharaj Shree Gupta .The dynasty is a model of classical civilization .This period is also known as Golden Age of India.
Chandragupta 1- (319-335CE)- The coronation of Chandragupta marke the begining of Gupta era.He acquired the title of Maharajdhiraj .
Samudragupta -(335-375 CE)- Known as the Nepolean of India .He was the son of Chandragupta I.He waqs also called Kaviraaj ,as he had composed many poems .He was presented as playing the lute (Vina) on his coins .
Chandragupta II - (380-413CE)- He is the most glorious king of this dynasty .He acquired the tilte of "Vikramaditya" by defeating Rudrasimha ,the king of Ujjain .His court was adorned with 'Nine gems ' (Navratnas ) .Fa Hien ,the chinese pilgrim ,vistited India during his reign .
Contributions of Gupta dynasty -
->The Guptas issued gold coins .The Buddhist monastry ,Nalanda,was established by Kumaragupta .Bhagwad gita was written ancient history was represented through the 10 incarnation of Lord Vishnu .
->The famous statues of Buddha at Bamiyan (Afghanistan )and Ajanta paintings belong to this period .
->The great Poet and dramatist Kalidasa belonged to this period .Some of his works are Abhigyan Shakuntalam ,Kumarasambhawam ,Meghdutam, Malvikagnimitram ,Ritusamhara ,Raghuvansham etc .Some of the other authors were Sudraka (written Mrichchakatikam) ,Bhairavi(written Kiratarjuniya) and Vishnu Sharma (written Panchatantra ) .
->The great mathematician Arybhatta wrote Aryabhattiya and Surya Siddhanta .His greatest contribution are mentioning the value of the first nine numbers ,use of zero in place value system, calculating the value of Pi and inventing Alzebra .
->Varahmihira wrote Panchsiddhantika and Brihatsamhita .
->Dhanvantari ,the great physician ,lived during this period .
Other dynasties and rulers -
Harsha Vardhana (606-647 CE)- the last hindu king of Nothern India ,Harshavardhan belonged to Pushyabhuti family .Kannauj was the capital of his kingdom .He wrote three plays :Priyadarshika ,Ratnawali and Nagananda ..Banabhatta ,his court poet ,wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari .Hieun Tsang ,a Chinese traveller ,visited his court ..
Chalukyas(6-12 CE)- The Chalukyas from Karnataka can be divided into three parts
1- Chalukyas of Badami (Early western era)
2- Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later western era)
3-Chalukya of Vengi (Eastern era )
Pulakesin I was the founder of Chalukya of Badami .Pulakesin II was its famous ruler .
Rashtrakutas (735-973CE)- They succeeded the Chalukyas .Its founder was Dantidurga .Their king Krishna I built the Kailash temple at Ellora .
Pallavas - Simhavishnu was the founder and their capital was at Kanchi .Narshimhavarman founded the town Mamallapuram .
Gangas - They reigned in Odisha .Narshimhadeva built the Sun temple at Konark and Anatvarman Ganga built the Jagannath temple at Puri .
Cholas - This dynasty was founded by Rajraj I and its capital was Tanjore .HE built Rajrajeshwari temple (Brihdeshwar Shiva temple ) there .The last ruler was Rajendra III .The modern concept of panchayati raj has been borrowed from the local self government system of the Cholas .Natraj ,the dancing image of Lord Shiva ,belongs to this period .
Palas of Bengal - Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala and their capital was Monghyr.Other rulers of this dynasty were Dharmapala ,the founder of Vikramshila university (and revived Naland university ) and Mahipala .
Pratiharas - The founder of this dynasty was Nagabhatta I and their famous ruler was Bhoja.
Yadavas - Singhara and Ramachandra were the major Yadav rulers .
Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar - The kingdom was laid in Deccan and wa sco-founded by Harihara and Bukka .Krishnadeva Raj was their most famous ruler .
Rajputs - They were divided into four clans -a) Pratihara (Southern Rajsathan ) b) Chauhans(east rajasthan c) Chalukya or Solankis (Kathiawar),d) Parmars or Pawars (Malwa) .
Chandelas built the Mahadev temple at Khajuraho in 1000 CE .The Solankis of Gujrat built the Dilwara temple at Mount Abu .
Jainism was propagated by non-Brahmins .It was founded by Rishabh Dev ,the father of king Bharat .It became a major religion under Vardhman Mahaveer.
The first Tirthankara (Prophet or Guru ) was Rishabhnath (emblem:bull) and teh 23 rd was Parshwanath (emblem : snake) whereas the 24th was Mahaveer (emblem : Lion) .The main teachings of Parshwanath were non-injury ,non-lying ,non stealing ,non-possesssion .Mahaveer adopted one more with all these which was Brahmacharya (celibacy).
Mahaveer was born to King Siddhartha and queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12th April according to Gregarian calender .He was married to Yashoda and had a daughter ,whose husband became his first deciple .At the age of 30 Mahaveer renounced his home ,gave up his worldly possessions and spent 12 years as an ascetic .He attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya at the age of 42 on th 10 th day of Vaishakh ,outside the town of Jrinbhikgrama .Then onwards ,he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and his followers were known as Jains He attained Nirvana at the age of 72 years ,four and a half months at Pawapuri near Patna on the last day of the Indian and Jain Calenders ,Diwali in 527 BCE .
Doctrine of Jainism -
Jainism believed in the following principles -
Rejected the authorities of the Vedas .
Rejected the existance og the God .
Discarded the sacrifice and the rituals .
Attainment of salvation by believing in penanc and dying of starvation.
Universal brotherhood .
Belief in ahimsa in word,thought an action towards all living beings
Some of the fundamental teachings of Mahaveer are -
To liberate oneself one should rely on right faith (samyak-darshan) ,right knowledge (samyak gyan) and right conduct (samyak -charitra).
At the heart of right conduct (for jains )lie the five great vows -
1-Non violence (Ahimsa)- to cause no harm to any living being.
2-Truthfullness (Satya) - the speak the harmless truth only .
3-Non stealing (Asteya) - to take nothing not given properly .
4-Chastity (Brahmacharya) - to indulge in no sensual pleasure .
5-Non possession/non attachment (Aparigraha) -To detach completely from people, places and material things .
The teachings of jainism were compiled in 14 books called Puranas ,later these were converted into 12 books called angas ,written in Andhra Magadhi and Prakrit dialects .
Jains were divided into two groups in the first Jain council held in Patliputra (modern Patna) - Digambara who remained unclad and Shwetambaraa who wear white clothes .
Magadha Empire -
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanpadas or regions in ancient India .The core of the kingdom was located in the area of Bihar of south of the ganges .Its first capital was Rajgriha (modern Rajgeer)then Patliputra (modern Patna).
Haryanka Dynasty (684-413 BCE)
Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty .HE expanded the Magadha kingdom by conquering Agra (east Bihar ) and entering into matrimonial relation with Kosala ,Vaishali and Madra .His capital was Girivraja (Rajgir).
Ajaatshatru (492-460 BCE)
Ajaatshatru imprisoned and killed his father Bimbisara.Under his rule ,the dynasty reached at its peak .He extended the Magadha empire by annexing the Lichchavi kingdom .Buddha died during his reign .He arranged the first Buddhist council at Rajgrih in 483 BCE under the chairmanship of Mahakassapa in which Bodh education was scripted in two books named Sutapatika and Vinayapatika .
Udayabhadra
Mahavamsa says that Udaybhadra eventually succeeded his father ,Ajatashatru,moving the capital of Magadha kingdom to Pataliputra ,which under the later Mauryan dynasty would become the largest city in the world .He has believed to have ruled for sixteen years .
Shishunga Dynasty rulers
The rulers of shishunga dynasty included the following :
Kakavarna (394-364 BCE) succeeded his father Shishunga . Kshemadharmam (618-582 BCE), Kshatrayujas (582-55 8BCE) and Kalasoka ,who has arranged the second buddhist council at Vaishali in 383 BCE under Sabakami .
Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BCE) -
Nanda dynasty was found by Mahapadam Nanda .It was the first non Khastriya dynasty .Mahapadamnanda added Kalinga to his empire .Dhana Nanda ,the eighth son of the founder and the last Nanda ruler was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya .Alexander invaded India during this period .
Foreign invasions -
Cyrus of Persia was the first foreign conqueror to invade India .
Darius I (522-486 BCE) the great grandson of Cyrus ,annexed Indus Valley in 518 BCE .Darius III enlisted the Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander .The control of Persia became weak on the eve of Alexander's invasion .
Alexander (356-323) ,a Greek ,ascended the throne of Macedoniaafter the death of his father Philips in 334 BCE .By 329 BCE he annexed Persia upto Afghanistan.He crossed the Hindukush mountains on May 326 BCE and invaded India.At that time north-west India was ruled by small independent states such as Taxila ,Punjab(by King of Porus) and Gandharas .
In the battle of Hedaspes (326 BCE) ,Alexander crossed the Hydaspes (Jhelum river) and took porous by surprize .Only Porous put up a tough fight against Alexander ,and other kings submitted meekly.Alexander moved towards the river Beas with a will of annexing Magadha ,but his soldiers refused to cross the river .Failing to persuade the soldiers ,he ordered his soldiers to retreat .The retreat began on October 326 BCE .After reaching Babylon (Baghdad) Alexander fell seriously ill and died on June 323 BCE merely at the age of 33.
Maurya Dynasty -(322-185 BCE) -
The Maurya empire ,was founded by Chandra Gupta Maurya.It marked a new epoch in the hitory of India .It was a period when politics ,art ,trade and commerce eleveated India to a glorious height .It originates from Kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (modern Bihar,eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal )in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent .The empire had its capital city at Patliputra (modern Patna) .
Chandragupta Maurya -(322-298 BCE) -
Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dyansty overthrowing the last Nand king Dhana Nanda .He established Maurya empire in 321 BCE with the help of Chanakya also known as Vishnugupta and Kautilya , whom he assigned as his teacher .He expanded his empire not only to most of the Indian subcontinent but also pushed its boundaries upto Persia and Central Asia conquering the Gandhara region .He faught a long battle with Seleucus Nicator (a general of Alexander ,who acquired the throne of babylon after the death of Alexander ) and with the treaty of 303 BCE ,he won the battle in trans Indus region .During his reign ,Megasthenes (a Greek Ambassador) was sent by Seleucus to his court .Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from throne for his son Bindusara .
Bindusara - (320 - 272 BCE )
Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor after Chandragupta Maurya .During his reign the empire extended Southwards upto Mysore .He had two sons Susima and Ashoka ,who were the viceroys of Taxila and Ujjain respectively .
The Greeks called Bindusara as Amitrochates or Allitrochades (derived from the Sanskrit word Amitraghat that means the slayer of enemies ).He was also called Ajathashetru (which means man having no enemies )in Sanskrit .He conquered 16 states and extended the empire from sea to sea .The empire included whole of India except Kalinga (modern Odisha) and the Dravidian kingdoms of South .Deimachus ,the greek ambassador ,visited his court .
Ashoka the Great (304-332 BCE)
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Samrat Ashoka |
Ashoka was crowned in 268 BCE ,four years after the death of his father Bindusara .Ashoka ruled almost over entire Indian subcontinent .His empire was stretched from Present day Pakistan ,Afghanistan in the west to the present day of Bengladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east and as far south in the Brahmagiri in Krnataka and peninsular part of Southern India .
India during Ashok's reign |
Ashoka's inscriptions were written in Brahmi ,Kharoshthi ,Aramaic and Greek languages .The emblem of India (Lion) has been adopted from the Ashokan pillar at Saarnath .
Brihadratha - The last Mauryan king ,who was assasinated during a military parade by the commander-in-chief of his guard ,the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE .He started Shunga Dynasty in Magadha .
Kingdoms after the Mauryan Empire
In North west India ,the Maurya empire was succeeded by by some dynasties of Central Asia .
The Indo Greeks : The Greeks were first to invade India ,who were also known as "Bactrain Greeks" (who ruled over Bactria ).The most famous IndoGreek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE) also Known as Milinda .
The Shakas or Scythians (A branch of Iranian Shakas ) - The Greeks were followed by Shakas .Vikramaditya ,the King of Ujjain ,defeated Shakas in 57 BCE and with this victory commence the era of Vikram Samvat .
The Parthians - They invaded India at the begining of the Christian era .Gondophares was their famous king .during whose rule St. Thaomas visited India to propagate Christianity .
Sunga Dynasty (184-75 BCE) - The founder was Pushyamitra Shunga .He was succeeded by his son Agnimitra (central character of KAlidasa's Malvikagnimitra).There were 10 Shunga rulers .It was a period of revival of Bhagwatism .Patanjali's Mahabhashya and yogasutra were composed during thsi period .The last ruler of this dynasty was Devabhuti (rule from 83-73BCE).
Kanva Dynasty (75-30BCE)- The founder of this dynasty was Vasudeva .This dynasty was followed by Satvahanas .
Kushaan Empire -(1-3 century ) -The Empire was created by the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi confederation .Kanishka was their most famous king .He started the saka era in 78 CE.He patronized Buddhism and held the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir .
In eastern ,Central and Deccan India the Mauryans were succeeded by dynasties such as Shungas,Kanvas and Satavahanas .
Saatvahana Dyansty (60BCE - 250CE) - Simukha was the founder of this dynasty .The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra shatkarni . They rule in deccan and central India .
Southern Kingdoms -(Sangam Period)
The history of the southern kindom can be learnt fom Sangam literature .Sangam wa sthe assembly of Tamil poets held under the royal patronage .
The Pandyas - Their capital was located at Madurai .They had trade links with Roman empire .
The Cholas - Kaveripattinam was their capital .The Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka .They also maintained a nnavy.
The Cheras - Vanaji was their capital .The famous ruler of this dynasty was Senguttuvan .who was also known as Red Chera .
Gupta dyansty (320-550 CE)
Founded by maharaj Shree Gupta .The dynasty is a model of classical civilization .This period is also known as Golden Age of India.
Chandragupta 1- (319-335CE)- The coronation of Chandragupta marke the begining of Gupta era.He acquired the title of Maharajdhiraj .
| Gupta Empire Under Chandragupta Vikramaditya |
Samudragupta -(335-375 CE)- Known as the Nepolean of India .He was the son of Chandragupta I.He waqs also called Kaviraaj ,as he had composed many poems .He was presented as playing the lute (Vina) on his coins .
Chandragupta II - (380-413CE)- He is the most glorious king of this dynasty .He acquired the tilte of "Vikramaditya" by defeating Rudrasimha ,the king of Ujjain .His court was adorned with 'Nine gems ' (Navratnas ) .Fa Hien ,the chinese pilgrim ,vistited India during his reign .
Contributions of Gupta dynasty -
->The Guptas issued gold coins .The Buddhist monastry ,Nalanda,was established by Kumaragupta .Bhagwad gita was written ancient history was represented through the 10 incarnation of Lord Vishnu .
->The famous statues of Buddha at Bamiyan (Afghanistan )and Ajanta paintings belong to this period .
->The great mathematician Arybhatta wrote Aryabhattiya and Surya Siddhanta .His greatest contribution are mentioning the value of the first nine numbers ,use of zero in place value system, calculating the value of Pi and inventing Alzebra .
->Varahmihira wrote Panchsiddhantika and Brihatsamhita .
->Dhanvantari ,the great physician ,lived during this period .
Other dynasties and rulers -
Harsha Vardhana (606-647 CE)- the last hindu king of Nothern India ,Harshavardhan belonged to Pushyabhuti family .Kannauj was the capital of his kingdom .He wrote three plays :Priyadarshika ,Ratnawali and Nagananda ..Banabhatta ,his court poet ,wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari .Hieun Tsang ,a Chinese traveller ,visited his court ..
Chalukyas(6-12 CE)- The Chalukyas from Karnataka can be divided into three parts
1- Chalukyas of Badami (Early western era)
2- Chalukyas of Kalyani (Later western era)
3-Chalukya of Vengi (Eastern era )
Pulakesin I was the founder of Chalukya of Badami .Pulakesin II was its famous ruler .
Rashtrakutas (735-973CE)- They succeeded the Chalukyas .Its founder was Dantidurga .Their king Krishna I built the Kailash temple at Ellora .
Pallavas - Simhavishnu was the founder and their capital was at Kanchi .Narshimhavarman founded the town Mamallapuram .
Gangas - They reigned in Odisha .Narshimhadeva built the Sun temple at Konark and Anatvarman Ganga built the Jagannath temple at Puri .
Cholas - This dynasty was founded by Rajraj I and its capital was Tanjore .HE built Rajrajeshwari temple (Brihdeshwar Shiva temple ) there .The last ruler was Rajendra III .The modern concept of panchayati raj has been borrowed from the local self government system of the Cholas .Natraj ,the dancing image of Lord Shiva ,belongs to this period .
Palas of Bengal - Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala and their capital was Monghyr.Other rulers of this dynasty were Dharmapala ,the founder of Vikramshila university (and revived Naland university ) and Mahipala .
Pratiharas - The founder of this dynasty was Nagabhatta I and their famous ruler was Bhoja.
Yadavas - Singhara and Ramachandra were the major Yadav rulers .
Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar - The kingdom was laid in Deccan and wa sco-founded by Harihara and Bukka .Krishnadeva Raj was their most famous ruler .
Rajputs - They were divided into four clans -a) Pratihara (Southern Rajsathan ) b) Chauhans(east rajasthan c) Chalukya or Solankis (Kathiawar),d) Parmars or Pawars (Malwa) .
Chandelas built the Mahadev temple at Khajuraho in 1000 CE .The Solankis of Gujrat built the Dilwara temple at Mount Abu .
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